Table 1.
Description of studies included in the systematic review (n = 9).
| ID | Sample | Population (SEX/AGE) |
Study Design (Follow up) | Exposure (Via NOVA Unless Stated Otherwise) (Moderate vs. High Intake of Upf) | Adjustment | Outcome (Risk of Nafld) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zhang et al. [24] | Tianjin Chronic Low-grade Systemic Inflammation and Health (TCLSIH) Cohort Study | 16,168 males/females aged 18–90 years | Cohort (4.2 years) |
Moderate: 2° quartile (30.1g/1000 kcal per day) High: 4° quartile (113.7 g/1000 kcal per day) |
Age, sex, BMI, smoking, alcohol, education, occupation, monthly household income, physical activity, family history of cardiometabolic disease, depressive symptoms, total energy intake, healthy diet score, diabetes, hypertension and hyperlipidaemia | Moderate intake increased the risk by 13% High intake increased the risk by 18% |
| Odegaard et al. [34] | Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study | 3001 male/females, aged 24–29 years | Cohort (25 years) |
Fast-food: Moderate: 3° quintile (1–2x/week) High: 5° quintile (>3x/week) |
Age, sex, race, study centre, education, employment history, household income, smoking, alcohol, diet quality, energy intake, physical activity, and prevalence of type 2 diabetes or history of a CVD event at the year 25 exam | Moderate intake increased the risk by over two-fold High intake increased the risk by over five-fold |
| Yari et al. [36] | Iranian males and females | 614 male and females, mean age 38.92 years | Case-control study | Energy-dense nutrient- poor snacks: Moderate: 2° quartile (3.7% total energy intake) High: = 4° quartile (9.7% total energy intake) |
Age, sex, BMI, physical activity, alcohol and total energy intake | Moderate intake had no significant association High intake increased the risk by over two-fold |
| Rahimi-Sakak et al. [37] | Iranian males and females | 999 males/females, mean age of 43.54 years | Case-control study | Processed meat: Moderate: 2° quartile (0.4–2.4/day) High: 4° quartile (>6.6 g/day) |
Age, gender, BMI, total energy intake, dietary factors, diabetes, smoking, and physical activity | Moderate intake had no significant association High intake increased risk by over three-fold |
| Noureddin et al. [35] | The Multi-ethnic Cohort (MEC) study | 32,448 males/females, mean age 57.7 years | Nested case-control study | Processed meat: Moderate: 2° quartile (1.6–3.3 g/day) High: 4° quartile (>5.7 g/day) |
BMI, alcohol intake, coffee drinking, total sweetened beverage intake, physical activity, total energy intake, education, smoking status and cardiovascular disease | Moderate intake had no significant association High intake increased the risk by 18% |
| Ivancovsky-Wajcman et al. [25] | Israeli males and females | 789 males/females, mean age 58.83 years | Cross-sectional study | Moderate: no data High: >28% total energy intake |
Age, gender, BMI, SFA intake, protein intake as a percentage of total energy intake, physical activity, coffee drinking and fibre intake | High intake had no significant association |
| Friden et al. [27] | Prospective investigation of Obesity, Energy and Metabolism (POEM) | 286 males/females, age-matched at 50 years | Cross-sectional study | Moderate: 2° tertile (37.6% total energy intake) High: 3° tertile (49% total energy intake) |
Sex, education level, physical activity level, smoking status, dietary factors and BMI | Moderate or high intake had no significant association |
| Zelber-Sagi et al. [38] | Colonoscopy screening at the Department for Gastroenterology and Hepatology at Tel Aviv Medical Centre | 789 males/females, mean age 58.83 years | Cross-sectional study | Processed meat: Moderate: no data available High: >0.33 daily portions |
Age, gender, energy intake per day, BMI, weekly hours of physical activity, smoking status, weekly alcohol portions, saturated fat (percent of daily energy) and cholesterol intake | High intake increased the risk by 47% |
| Konieczna et al. [26] | PREDIMED-Plus trial | 5867 males/females, mean age 65.0 years | Cohort (1 year) | Moderate: 3° quintile (6.23% of g/day) High: 5° quintile (19% of g/day) |
Age at inclusion, sex, study arm, and follow-up time (months), baseline educational level, smoking habits, alcohol intake | Moderate intake was associated with a two-fold increased likelihood High intake was associated with four-fold increased likelihood |