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. 2023 May 28:1–23. Online ahead of print. doi: 10.1007/s11205-023-03146-1

Table 4.

Effects of absolute and relative educations on voter turnout (Logistic Models)

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
1976–1998 2000–2018
Years of Education 0.191*** 0.185*** 0.140*** 0.189***
(0.014) (0.013) (0.018) (0.022)
Education Rank 0.007*** 0.006*** 0.001 0.006
(0.001) (0.001) (0.002) (0.003)
Years of Education X Education Rank 0.001** 0.000
(0.000) (0.000)
Age 0.094*** 0.095*** 0.111*** 0.076***
(0.007) (0.006) (0.004) (0.006)
Age Squared − 0.001*** − 0.001*** − 0.001*** − 0.000***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Female 0.079*** 0.079*** 0.061** 0.109***
(0.021) (0.020) (0.023) (0.027)
African American 0.330*** 0.329*** 0.212*** 0.435***
(0.066) (0.068) (0.063) (0.082)
Asian American − 0.992*** − 0.984*** − 0.693*** − 0.999***
(0.074) (0.067) (0.126) (0.059)
Other Race − 0.466*** − 0.466*** − 0.633*** − 0.364***
(00.098) (0.099) (0.163) (0.106)
Married 0.556*** 0.554*** 0.544*** 0.569***
(0.020) (0.020) (0.019) (0.024)
1978 − 0.105*** − 0.400*** − 0.614***
(0.030) (0.013) (0.011)
1980 − 0.068 − 0.020 0.069***
(0.037) (0.021) (0.010)
1982 − 0.042 − 0.288*** − 0.484***
(0.059) (0.018) (0.016)
1984 − 0.059* − 0.024 0.081***
(0.024) (0.015) (0.007)
1986 − 0.045 − 0.481*** − 0.695***
(0.030) (0.014) (0.025)
1988 − 0.248*** − 0.262*** − 0.109***
(0.013) (0.007) (0.010)
1990 − 0.276*** − 0.600*** − 0.746***
(0.021) (0.012) (0.016)
1992 − 0.423*** − 0.248*** 0.017
(0.025) (0.016) (0.011)
1994 − 0.650*** − 0.850*** − 0.832***
(0.049) (0.020) (0.022)
1996 − 0.509*** − 0.550*** − 0.363***
(0.019) (0.023) (0.018)
1998 − 0.390*** − 0.809*** − 0.958***
(0.066) (0.028) (0.019)
2000 − 0.612*** − 0.443***
(0.035) (0.016)
2002 − 0.602*** − 0.929*** − 0.752***
(0.021) (0.015) (0.010)
2004 − 0.797*** − 0.348*** 0.204***
(0.107) (0.048) (0.007)
2006 − 0.633*** − 0.855*** − 0.654***
(0.050) (0.026) (0.016)
2008 − 0.797*** − 0.286*** 0.295***
(0.096) (0.047) (0.013)
2010 − 0.635*** − 0.841*** − 0.691***
(0.098) (0.052) (0.026)
2012 − 0.620*** − 0.348*** 0.122***
(0.123) (0.055) (0.007)
2014 − 0.811*** − 1.071*** − 0.958***
(0.098) (0.050) (0.007)
2016 − 0.923*** − 0.450*** 0.106***
(0.125) (0.062) (0.009)
2018 − 1.068*** − 0.800*** − 0.325***
(0.089) (0.051) (0.019)
Years of Education X 1978 − 0.044***
(0.006)
Years of Education X 1980 0.011**
(0.004)
Years of Education X 1982 − 0.039***
(0.008)
Years of Education X 1984 0.010*
(0.004)
Years of Education X 1986 − 0.055***
(0.007)
Years of Education X 1988 0.009**
(0.003)
Years of Education X 1990 − 0.040***
(0.006)
Years of Education X 1992 0.035***
(0.004)
Years of Education X 1994 − 0.016
(0.009)
Years of Education X 1996 0.010**
(0.004)
Years of Education X 1998 − 0.046***
(0.008)
Years of Education X 2000 0.032***
(0.004)
Years of Education X 2002 − 0.026***
(0.002)
Years of Education X 2004 0.062***
(0.007)
Years of Education X 2006 − 0.016**
(0.006)
Years of Education X 2008 0.068***
(0.006)
Years of Education X 2010 − 0.019*
(0.009)
Years of Education X 2012 0.041***
(0.008)
Years of Education X 2014 − 0.024***
(0.007)
Years of Education X 2016 0.062***
(0.008)
Years of Education X 2018 0.040***
(0.006)
Education Rank X 1978 − 0.004***
(0.001)
Education Rank X 1980 0.002**
(0.001)
Education Rank X 1982 − 0.004***
(0.001)
Education Rank X 1984 0.002***
(0.000)
Education Rank X 1986 − 0.004***
(0.001)
Education Rank X 1988 0.002***
(0.000)
Education Rank X 1990 − 0.003***
(0.001)
Education Rank X 1992 0.005***
(0.001)
Education Rank X 1994 0.000
(0.001)
Education Rank X 1996 0.003***
(0.000)
Education Rank X 1998 − 0.003***
(0.001)
Education Rank X 2000 0.004***
(0.001)
Education Rank X 2002 − 0.000
(0.000)
Education Rank X 2004 0.006***
(0.001)
Education Rank X 2006 0.000
(0.001)
Education Rank X 2008 0.007***
(0.001)
Education Rank X 2010 − 0.000
(0.001)
Education Rank X 2012 0.005***
(0.001)
Education Rank X 2014 − 0.001
(0.001)
Education Rank X 2016 0.006***
(0.001)
Education Rank X 2018 0.005***
(0.001)
(Intercept) − 5.260*** − 5.167*** − 5.052*** − 5.105***
(0.164) (0.133) (0.123) (0.250)
Pseudo R-squared 0.133 0.133 0.121 0.140
nobs 1,538,904 1,538,904 861,663 677,241
AIC 3,192,273,152.209 3,193,272,258.128 1,630,998,186.424 1,562,257,929.744
BIC 3,192,273,789.031 3,193,272,894.950 1,630,998,443.090 1,562,258,158.259
Log Likelihood − 1,596,136,524.105 − 1,596,636,077.064 − 815,499,071.212 − 781,128,944.872

Unstandardized coefficients are presented, and robust standard errors are shown in parenthesis for each coefficient, clustering by educational environment (state and year). Significance level ∗ , ∗  ∗ , and ∗  ∗  ∗ indicate zero is not covered by the 90, 95, and 99 percent confidence interval, respectively