Table 1.
Diverse secondary metabolites secreted by Trichoderma spp. and their functions in plant disease management.
| Class of secondary metabolite | Name of the compound | Activity performed | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| i) Against bacterial phytopathogens | |||
| Peptaibols | Trichokonin VI, VII, and AVIII | Highly effective against the Gram-positive bacterial phytopathogen Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis, causing bacterial wilt and canker in tomato, potato, and maize | Song et al. (2006) |
| Pyridone | Trichodin A | Antibiotic activity against Gram-positive bacteria | Wu et al. (2014) |
| Viridiofungin | Viridiofungin A | Effective against Erwinia amylovora and C. michiganensis | El-Hasan et al. (2009) |
| – | Secondary metabolites obtained from T. pseudoharzianum (T113) and T. viridae | Effective against bacterial phytopathogens, viz., Ralstonia solanacearum and Xanthomonas campestris | Khan et al. (2020) |
| ii) Against fungal phytopathogens | |||
| Pyrones | 6-Pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one | Antifungal activity against Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum
Effective in reducing Botrytis fruit rot of kiwi fruits |
Scarselletti and Faull (1994); Poole et al. (1998) |
| Viridepyronone | Exhibits 90% antagonistic activity against Sclerotium rolfsii at MIC 196 mg/ml | Hill et al. (1995); Evidente et al. (2003); Kishimoto et al. (2005) | |
| Massoilactone and δ-decanolactone | Effective against Phytophthora and Botrytis | Hill et al. (1995) | |
| Koninginins | Koninginins A, B, D, E, and G | Antifungal activity against Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici | Almassi et al. (1991); Ghisalberti and Rowland (1993) |
| Koninginins A, B, and D | Broad antifungal activity against several fungal phytopathogens, viz., F. oxysporum, Bipolaris sorokiniana, Phytophthora cinnamomi, and Pythium middletonii | Dunlop et al. (1989); Chen et al. (2015) | |
| Steroids | Stigmasterol | Antifungal activity against R. solani, S. rolfsii, Macrophomina phaseolina, and F. oxysporum | Ahluwalia et al. (2014); Ahluwalia et al. (2015) |
| Ergosterol, 3,5,9-trihydroxyergosta-7,22-dien-6-one | Effective against Pyricularia oryzae, Aspergillus niger, and Alternaria alternata at MIC 32 µg/mL | Xuan et al. (2014) | |
| Furanosteroids | Viridin | Broad spectrum antifungal activity against A. niger, Botrytis allii, Colletotrichum lini, F. caeruleum, Stachybotrys atra and P. expansum | Brian and McGowan (1945) |
| Pyridone | Harzianopyridone | Antagonists to Botrytis cinerea, G. graminis var. tritici, R. solani, Phytophthora spp., Leptosphaeria maculans, S. rolfsii and F. oxysporum | Dickinson et al. (1989); Vinale et al. (2006); Vinale et al. (2009); Ahluwalia et al. (2015) |
| Harzianic acid | Highly antifungal activity against soil-borne plant pathogens such as Pythium irregulare, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, and R. solani | Vinale et al. (2009) | |
| Epipolythiodioxopiperazines | Gliotoxin | Inhibitory against Rhizoctonia bataticola, M. phaseolina, Pythium debaryanum, Pythium aphanidermatum, S. rolfsii and R. solani, | Jones and Pettit (1987); Singh et al. (2005) |
| Gliovirin | Antagonistic activity against Pythium ultimum and R. solani | Howell and Stipanovic (1983); Nakano et al. (1990) | |
| Peptaibols | Trichokonins VI, VII, and VIII | Highly antagonistic to soil-borne phytopathogens such as R. solani, F. oxysporum, Verticillium dahliae, and B. cinerea, and Phytophthora parasitica | Song et al. (2006); Shi et al. (2012); Zhao et al. (2018) |
| Trichokonin | Induces ROS production, synthesis, and accumulation of phenolic compounds at the application site, and activation of multiple defense signaling pathways in plants | Luo et al. (2010) | |
| Trichorzianines A1 and B1 | Exhibit antifungal activity by acting as an inhibitor of spore germination and hyphal elongation of phytopathogenic fungi | Goulard et al. (1995); Lee et al. (1999) | |
| A-aminoisobutyric acid and isovaline | Highly effective against oomycetes fungi, act as an inhibitor of β-glucan synthase | Dutta et al., (2022b) | |
| Trichostromaticins A–E | Antagonistic activity against Moniliophthora perniciosa, a causal agent of witches’ broom disease in cocoa | Degenkolb et al. (2008) | |
| Trichogin GA IV and its derivatives | Preventive efficacy against B. cinerea infection in tomato plants | Baccelli et al. (2022) | |
| Butenolides | Harzianolide | Antagonistic to pathogens that cause take-all in wheat, viz., G. graminis var. tritici, P. ultimum, R. solani, and B. cinerea | Almassi et al. (1991); Vinale et al. (2006); Vinale et al. (2009) |
| T39butenolide | Highly antagonistic to G. graminis var. tritici, inhibitory to P. ultimum, R. solani, and B. cinerea | Almassi et al. (1991); Vinale et al. (2006); Vinale et al. (2009) | |
| 5-Hydroxyvertinolide | Antifungal activity against Mycena citricolor, the causal organism of American leaf spot disease in coffee | Andrade et al. (1992) | |
| Azaphilones | T22azaphilone, harziphilone, fleephilone, | Antagonistic activity against P. ultimum, G. graminis var. tritici, R. solani, B. cinerea, P. cinnamomi, and L. maculans. Provides self-protection to ROS liberated during mycoparasitic interaction with F. oxysporum f. sp. Cubanse race 4 | Vinale et al. (2006); Vinale et al. (2008); Vinale et al. (2009); Pang et al. (2020) |
| Koninginins | Koninginins A-E | Inhibitory to G. graminis var. tritici; antifungal activity against Alternaria panax, B. sorokiniana, F. oxysporum, F. solani, P. cinnamomi, and P. middletonii | Almassi et al. (1991); Dunlop et al. (1989); Ghisalberti and Rowland (1993); Chen et al. (2015) |
| Anthraquinones | 1,8-Dihydroxy-3-methylanthraquinone, 1-hydroxy-3-methylanthraquinone | Exhibit antifungal activity against G. graminis var. tritici and P. ultimum | Vinale et al. (2006) |
| Chrysophanol, pachybasin | Reduced antimicrobial activity; released in symbiotic interaction with plant roots | Liu et al. (2009) | |
| 1,5-Dihydroxy-3-hydroxymethyl-9,10-anthraquinone; emodin; 1,7dihydroxy-3-hydroxymethyl-9,10-anthraquinone | Powerful antimicrobial agent, effective against R. solani and B. cinerea
Escalates host plant’s defense response against phytopathogen |
Liu et al. (2009) | |
| Lactone | Cremenolide | Antagonistic activity against R. solani, B. cinerea, and F. oxysporum; exhibit PGP activity | Vinale et al. (2016) |
| Aspinolide C | Exhibit antibiotic activity against B. cinerea and Fusarium sporotrichioides; activates host plant defense against phytopathogenic fungal invasion | Malmierca et al. (2015) | |
| Cerinolactone | Strong antifungal activity against Rosellinia necatrix—the causal agent of white root rot in apple, pear, apricot, strawberry, etc. | Vinale et al. (2012); Arjona-Girona et al. (2014) | |
| Nafuredin C, nafuredin A | Exhibit moderate antifungal activity | Zhao et al. (2020) | |
| Trichothecenes | Trichodermin | Broad antifungal activity against several phytopathogenic fungi, such as B. cinerea, Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Cochliobolus miyabeanus, F. oxysporum, R. solani, and Thanatephorus cucumeris | Shi et al. (2009); Sha et al. (2013); Shentu et al. (2014) |
| Trichodermarins G–N, trichodermol, trichodermin, trichoderminol, trichodermarins A and B, and 2,4,12-trihydroxyapotrichothecene | Exhibit antifungal and antimicrobial activity; highly effective against B. cinerea, C. miyabeanus, F. oxysporum f. sp. cucumerium, F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum, and Phomopsis asparagi | Shi et al. (2020) | |
| Trichobreols A–E | Exhibit broad antifungal activity | Yamazaki et al. (Yamazaki et al., 2020a and Yamazaki et al., 2020b) | |
| Trichothecinol A, 8-deoxy-trichothecin, trichothecinol B, and trichodermene A | Antagonistic activity against a broad range of soil-borne phytopathogens | Du et al. (2020) | |
| Isocyanide | Dermadin | Antibiotic activity against Phytophthora spp. | Dutta et al., (2022b) |
| Polyketides | Trichoharzianol | Antifungal activity against Colletotrichum gloeosporioides | Jeerapong et al. (2015) |
| Peptide | Alamethicin | Activation of plant defense, viz., ISR and SAR in lima bean | Engelberth et al. (2001) |
MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration; PGP, plant-growth promoting.