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. 2023 May 29;9:11. doi: 10.1186/s42234-023-00113-6

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© The Author(s) 2023, corrected publication 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Five forms of neuromodulation therapies (A) FES, (B) ES, (C) FNS, (D) TSCS, and (E) EES, described in this review. Electrodes placement: FES implanted in thoraco-lumbar region, ES transcutaneously over abdominal muscles, FNS implanted in thoracic region, TSCS transcutaneously over spinal cord in thoraco-lumbar region, and EES implanted in dorsal epidural surface in lumbosacral spinal cord enlargement. Abbreviation: FES = functional electrical stimulation; ES = electrical stimulation; FNS = functional neuromuscular stimulation; TSCS = transcutaneous electrical spinal cord stimulation; EES = epidural spinal electrical stimulation