TABLE 1.

The various conceptualizations and associated types of reflections along with examples of guiding questions

Conceptualization	Types	Examples of questions for reflection within each category
Timing of reflection	Anticipatory	Tomorrow’s class is going to cover a foundational topic. How can I best engage students in the material to encourage deeper interest and understanding?
	Reflection-in-action or contemporaneous	My student is asking me to go over an old topic. Would it be better to repeat my previous verbal explanation or to try to approach the subject with a visual representation on the board?
	Reflection-on-action or retrospective	No one answered questions during class today, so I just answered them myself and moved on. Was this effective for student learning or should I have waited them out or called on specific students?
Depth of reflections	Pre-reflection	Do I have a class today?
	Surface reflection	Did the questions on the quizzes prepare students for the test? Did using the projector or the chalkboard result in more engagement by the students during lecture?
	Pedagogical reflection	Is what I am practicing in class consistent with the newest findings from the literature? How can I change the physical layout of my class to foster more student–student interactions?
	Critical reflection	Do my teaching methods equally benefit students of different cultural backgrounds? For instance, is a metaphor that I used in the explanation of a new concept able to be easily understood by international students in the class? Will the information that students are being graded on ever play a part in their careers, and if not, should those grades be a major contribution to them passing a course required for said career?
Content of reflections	Technical reflection	What evidence is in the literature regarding student outcomes in a lecture environment as compared with group-focused, collaborative environments?
	Reflection-in and on-action	Multiple times during my last lecture, my students had to ask for clarification on the new concepts. The way I am approaching these things was clearly not working. How can I change my lecture to approach difficult information from multiple directions?
	Deliberative reflection	My colleagues say that having students struggle with a topic increases their learning outcomes, but my own experience shows that struggle leads to disengagement and poor grades. Should I make my students initially struggle with difficult topics?
	Personalistic reflection	I worry that my students feel as if they can't come to me with their questions or concerns. How can I change how I approach my students to better show that I am invested in their success and am more than willing to devote time to helping them?
	Critical reflections	Does an assignment required of my students have the potential to invalidate, or make them self-conscious about, a part of their identity? An example would be requiring female students to look at the numbers of articles published by male compared with female authors without discussing any aspects apart from gender, which may contribute to the difference.