Table 1.

Detailed description of geodemographic classifications and other area characteristics included in the analysis.

Geodemographic classifications and other area characteristics
Classification	Details
London Output Area Classification (LOAC) (Longley and Singleton, 2014)	Captures the characteristics of the residential population in Output Areas (OAs) using data from the 2011 census. OAs are compact and homogeneous areas with a target size of 125 households built from postcodes. The classification uses a combination of over 60 census variables to classify all OAs, based on their similarities, into eight Super Groups and 19 Groups.
Index of Multiple Deprivation 2019 (IMD) (McLennan et al., 2019)	The IMD is calculated for every Lower-layer Super Output Area (LSOA) in England. LSOAs are created by merging OAs and have an average of approximately 1500 residents or 650 households. The index is based on 39 separate indicators, organised across seven distinct domains of deprivation (income, employment, health, education, crime, housing and services, living environment) that are combined and weighted to calculate the IMD. In the case study, we apply deprivation deciles, where Decile 1 represents the most deprived 10% of neighbourhoods and Decile 10 represents the least deprived 10% of neighbourhoods.
London Workplace Classification (LWPZ) (Singleton et al., 2017)	Workplace Zones (WZs) have been created by splitting and merging OAs to produce a workplace geography that contains consistent numbers of workers (Martin et al., 2013). Effectively, this is a geographic redistribution of the usually resident population who are in work, allocated to their place of work. Unlike the LOAC and IMD Index which are based solely on information derived from the census data, the LWPZ uses supplementary data from other data sourced through the CDRC, the ONS and Transport for London, including variables pertaining to the dynamism and attractiveness of workplace settings, the retail structure and accessibility. A total of 92 variables were used to classify the 8154 WZs in London into five Groups and 11 Subgroups.
Retail Centres (Dolega et al., 2021)	Retail centres are defined as distinctive areas of increased concentration of retail activity. The geography of retail centre boundaries was designed by Pavlis et al. (2018) and the typology was introduced by Dolega et al. (2021). The classification takes into account the structure of the retail occupancy (presence of different subcategories of stores), vacancy rates and crime. The classification yields five groups and 15 subgroups. The geographical boundaries, as well as the typology, have been derived from data made available from the Local Data Company (LDC:http://www.localdatacompany.com/).