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. 2023 May 25;8(6):1176–1186. doi: 10.1038/s41564-023-01375-1

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — Phylogenetic meta-analysis model coefficients and 95% confidence intervals, estimated using REML for each of our three datasets. Colours indicate the nine variables included in each model (binary covariates for sampling season). Estimate confidence intervals are shaded by whether they cross zero (the vertical dashed line), with increased transparency denoting non-significant effects. The intercept contains the following reference levels: single sampling (sampling method); cross-sectional study (study format); single PCR (PCR type); faecal, rectal or anal sample (sample type); euthanasia not used (euthanasia use); Craseonycteridae (bat family); not fall, not winter, not spring and not summer (sampling season); and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) only (gene target). Sample sizes are 1,854 prevalence estimates for all coronaviruses, 1,553 prevalence estimates for only alphacoronaviruses and 1,428 prevalence estimates for only betacoronaviruses.