Table 1.
Robotic surgical systems for visualization in multiple-port surgeries, by year
| Name | Visualization type | DOFa | Manipulation type | Actuation method | Control typeb & level of automationc | Control interface | Development stage | Year | Clinical application | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Camera | Total | |||||||||
| ARTEMIS (Karlsruhe Research Center, Germany)d [31] | Three-dimensional (3D) endoscopic vision system | 4 | 6 |
Steerable & rotation of instruments 90° bending angle |
Electromotors |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Open surgeon workstation—joystick control for endoscope, two master arms | Research prototype (animal studies) (defunct) | 1999 |
Surgery—minimally invasive Cardiac surgery |
| ZEUS Robotic Surgical System (Computer Motion Inc., USA)e [32] | 10 mm 3D laparoscope | 4 | 6 | One-way articulating tips | Motor |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Open surgeon console Voice-activated camera system |
Commercial (defunct) |
2001 (FDA) |
Surgery—minimally invasive General surgery (gastrectomy, cholecystectomy) |
| da Vinci Xi (Intuitive Surgical Inc., USA) [29, 33] |
3D high definition (HD) 8 mm 30° endoscope Fluorescence imaging |
– | 7 | Insertion, retraction | Cable-driven |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Closed surgeon console—hand controllers (finger loops), foot pedal (clutch) | Commercial | 2014 (FDA) |
Surgery—minimally invasive Cholecystectomy, prostatectomy, hysterectomy, colorectal cancer surgery, cardiothoracic surgery, head & neck surgery |
| Micro Hand S (Tianjin University, China) [34] | 3D camera | – | 7 | 360° rotation | Cable-driven |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Open surgeon console—hand control | Commercial | 2014 (China) |
Surgery—minimally invasive General & colorectal surgery (total mesorectal excision, sigmoidectomy) |
| Senhance Surgical System (Asensus Surgical USA, Inc.)f [35–37] | 3D HD vision, fluorescence visualization | – | 7 | Insertion, retraction, pan, zoom | Electrical motor |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Open surgeon console—track pad & handles 3D glasses, eye-tracking |
Commercial | 2017 (FDA) |
Surgery–minimally invasive Colorectal, gynecological, general, urological, thoracic |
| Revo-i (meerecompany, South Korea) [37–39] | 3D HD | – | 7 | Zoom, rotate | Electrical motor |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Closed surgeon console–precision grip finger controls & foot pedal (clutch) | Commercial | 2017 (Korea) |
Surgery—minimally invasive Urology, general, obstetrics & gynecology |
| Bitrack (Rob Surgical, Spain) [29, 40] | 3D HD | – | 7 | – | – |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Open surgeon console with hand controls 3D glasses Haptic feedback |
Research prototype (animal studies) | 2018 |
Surgery—minimally invasive General, urology, colon & rectal, gynecology, thoracic, renal & hepatic |
| avatera (avateramedical, Germany) [41, 42] | 3D HD vision | – | 7 | – | – |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Closed control unit with slender eyepiece, handle, footswitch | Commercial | 2019 (CE) |
Surgery—minimally invasive Urology (removal of prostate & kidney tumors), gynecology |
| Versius (CMR Surgical, UK) [43] | 3D HD camera system | – | 7 | – | Electrical motor |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Open operator console with joystick controllers 3D glasses |
Commercial | 2019 (CE) |
Surgery—minimally invasive Gynecologic, colorectal, renal, head & neck, upper gastrointestinal |
| hinotori™ (Medicaroid Corporation, Japan) [44, 45] | 3D vision | 4 | 8 | – | – |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Semi-open surgeon cockpit—3D viewer, hand control, foot pedal (clutch) | Commercial | 2020 (Japan) |
Surgery—minimally invasive Prostatectomy |
| Dexter (Distalmotion, Switzerland) [46, 47] | – | – | 7 | In/outward, up/downward, left/right, rotational, pitch, yaw, open/close | Cable-driven |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Open surgeon console with handle grip | Commercial | 2020 (CE) |
Surgery—minimally invasive Gynecology surgery (hysterectomy) |
| Jo, Kim [48] (Seoul National University, South Korea) [48] | 3D endoscope | 4 | – | Up/down, right/left, roll | Cable-driven |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
VR headset Head tracking |
Research | 2020 |
Surgery—minimally invasive Laparoscopic surgery |
| Toumai Endoscopic Surgical System (MicroPort MedBot, China) [49] | 3D view | – | 7 | – | – |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Closed surgeon console with hand controls, foot pedal (clutch) | Commercial | 2021 (China) |
Surgery—minimally invasive Urology (prostatectomy, nephrectomy) |
| SHURUI (Beijing Surgerii Technology Co. Ltd., China) [27, 50, 51] |
3D stereo vision 10 mm diameter 60 fps 1280 × 720 |
6 | – | Tip deflection | Cable-driven |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Open surgeon console—hand controllers (customized Geomagic TouchX devices) |
Research prototype (human clinical trials) | 2021 |
Surgery—minimally invasive Radical resection of sigmoid colon cancer, gynecologic surgeries (radical nephrectomy, partial bladder resection, thoracoscopic mediastinal lymph node dissection in porcine models) |
| Hugo RAS system (Medtronic, USA)g [52–54] | 3D visualization | – | 7 | – | Cable-driven |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Open surgeon console 3D HD vision Hand grip controllers Foot pedal (clutch) |
Commercial | 2021 (CE) |
Surgery—minimally invasive Urologic (prostatectomy) and gynecologic procedures |
| SSI Mantra (SS innovations, India) [55] | 3D HD chip-on-tip articulating scope | 4 | – | Four-way articulation | – |
Teleoperated Master–slave |
Open surgeon console with hand control (mini joystick), foot pedal (clutch) | Commercial | 2022 (India) |
Surgery—minimally invasive Urology, general surgery, gynecology, thoracic, cardiac, head & neck |
aDOF refers to degree(s) of freedom
bControl type: Teleoperated, cooperative, autonomous
cLevel of automation: Master-slave, semi-autonomous, autonomous
dARTEMIS used FIPS robotic scope holder. It was not developed further
eZEUS used AESOP robotic scope holder. Computer Motion was acquired by Intuitive Surgical
fSenhance was formerly known as Telelap Alf-X. Asensus Surgical US, Inc. was previously known as TransEnterix, Inc.
gHugo RAS incorporates MiroSurge (German Aerospace Center DLR, Germany)