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. 2023 May 22;14(2):249–273. doi: 10.1007/s13167-023-00323-7

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — A Genome vs transcriptome, and ncRNAs vs protein-coding RNAs. B Essential functions of lncRNAs in the cell. C The roles of lncRNAs in breast cancer. A Most of the mammalian genome is actively transcribed. However, non-coding RNAs, formerly called “transcriptional noise” or “junk,” form a substantial part of the transcriptome. Besides, less than 2% of the transcripts code for proteins. B Long non-coding RNAs forming the most prevalent and diverse class of regulatory ncRNAs are linked to different cellular functions, including gene activation, chromatin modification and remodeling, scaffold for protein complex, shorter ncRNAs generation, mRNA regulation and suppression, and miRNA sponges. C Numerous lncRNAs participated in regulating different stages of breast cancer, for example, cell cycle progression, proliferation and apoptosis, migration, invasion, metastasis, EMT, drug resistance, genomic instability, or breast cancer stem cells. LncRNAs acted as either promoters or inhibitors of the abovementioned key processes associated with breast carcinogenesis [15, 16, 21–32]