Table 1.

In vivo approaches employed to investigate purinergic signaling during seizures and epilepsy using adult rodents (selected examples).

Animal model	Type of Seizures / Epilepsy	Induction	Studies on purinergic signaling
PTZ seizure model	Acute generalized seizures	Intraperitoneal, intravenous, or subcutaneous injection of PTZ	P2X7R (mice) ( Fischer et al. 2016); P2X7R (mice) (Nieoczym et al. 2017)
PTZ kindling model	Partial seizures developing into secondarily generalized seizures	Continuous low-dose intraperitoneal administration of PTZ	A2AR (mice) (El Yacoubi et al. 2009); P2X7R (species not specified) (Soni et al. 2015); P2X7R (rats, mice) (Fischer et al. 2016); P2X3R (rats) (Xia et al. 2018)
Pilocarpine model of status epilepticus	Status epilepticus, TLE with hippocampal sclerosis	Intraperitoneal injection of pilocarpine	A2AR (mice) (El Yacoubi et al. 2009); P2X7R (rats) (Kim et al. 2009; Kim et al. 2010, 2011); P2X7R (mice) ( Kim and Kang, 2011); P2X7R (rats) (Amhaoul et al. 2016); A1R (rats) (Amorim et al. 2016); ATP release (rats) ( Dona et al. 2016; Lietsche et al. 2016); P2X7R (rats) (Rozmer et al. 2017)
Intraperitoneal KA model of status epilepticus	Status epilepticus, TLE with hippocampal sclerosis	Intraperitoneal injection of KA	P2X7R (mice) ( Kim and Kang, 2011); P2X4R (mice) (Ulmann et al. 2013); P2Y12R (mice) ( Eyo et al. 2014); P2X7R (rats) ( Amhaoul et al. 2016); P2Y1R (rats) (Simoes et al. 2018)
Intrahippocampal KA model of status epilepticus	Status epilepticus, TLE with hippocampal sclerosis	Intrahippocampal injection of KA	A1R (mice) ( Gouder et al. 2003; Fedele et al. 2006); ADK (mice) (Gouder et al. 2004; Fedele et al. 2005; Sandau et al. 2019); A1R (rats) ( Canas et al. 2018)
Intraamygdala KA model of status epilepticus	Status epilepticus, TLE with hippocampal sclerosis	Intraamygdala injection of KA	P2X7R (mice) ( Engel et al. 2012; Jimenez-Pacheco et al. 2013; Jimenez-Mateos et al. 2015, Jimenez-Pacheco et al. 2016); P2YR family (mice) ( Alves et al. 2017; Alves, De et al. 2019; Alves et al. 2019)
Controlled cortical impact (CCI)	Post-traumatic epilepsy, epileptogenesis, hippocampal sclerosis	Mechanical energy delivered to an intact dura exposed following a craniectomy	A1R (mice) ( Kochanek et al., 1997)
6-Hz psychomotor seizures test	Acute partial seizures	Low-frequency (6 Hz) stimulation delivered through corneal electrodes	P2X7R (mice) ( Nieoczym et al. 2017)
Maximal electroshock seizure model	Acute generalized tonic-clonic seizures	Electrical stimulation via transcorneal or transauricular electrodes at an intensity sufficient to elicit tonic hind limb extension [50-mA (mice) or 150-mA (rats)]	ADK (rats) ( Ugarkar et al. 2000); P2X7R (mice) (Fischer et al. 2016); P2X7R (mice) ( Nieoczym et al. 2017)
Electrical kindling	Partial epilepsy, partial and secondarily generalized seizures, epileptogenesis	Electrical stimuli via depth electrode in basolateral amygdala, hippocampus, or performant path	P2Rs (rats) (Sun et al. 2018); A1R (rats) (Canas et al. 2018)
Seizure-prone mice	Audiogenic seizures	Inbred DBA/2 (D2) mice	ATP release ( Wieraszko and Seyfried, 1989)
Seizure-prone gerbils	From mild hypnotic/ cataleptic to full grand mal seizures	Seizure-sensitive (SS) gerbil	P2X2R and P2X4R (Kang et al. 2003)
Genetic model of absence epilepsy	Absence seizures	Glaxo/Rijswijk (WAG/Rij) rats	Uridine (Kovacs et al. 2013); P2X7R (Dogan et al. 2020)

Abbreviations: ADK, Adenosine kinase; CCI, Controlled cortical impact; i.p., intraperitoneal; KA, Kainic acid; PTZ, Pentylenetetrazol; TLE, Temporal lobe epilepsy.