TABLE 1.

Summary of social–environmental factors and interventions that have been associated with changes in human gene expression

Summary of results	Factors/interventions	Selected references
Beneficial influences
Psychosocial interventions, social engagement and connectedness, and nurturing relationships with parents have been found to decrease expression of pro-inflammatory immune response genes (e.g., IL1B, IL6, and TNF) and increase expression of antiviral immune response genes (e.g., IFNA and IFNB), leading to less inflammatory activity and potentially better health outcomes when battling viral threats.	Cognitive-behavior therapy	110
	Mindfulness programs	111
	Stress management programs	112,113
	Volunteering/prosocial behavior	114
	Maternal warmth/supportive parenting	115–117
	Social connectedness	118
Adverse influences
Adverse social–environmental experiences, including chronic stress, loneliness, poverty, abuse, and early life stress, have been found to increase expression of pro-inflammatory immune response genes (e.g., IL1B, IL6, and TNF) and decrease expression of antiviral immune response genes (e.g., IFNA and IFNB), leading to greater inflammatory activity, increased risk of inflammation-related diseases, and worse outcomes when battling viral threats. Further, chronic and early life stress both modify glucocorticoid receptor gene expression in ways that can lead to glucocorticoid insensitivity and systemic chronic inflammation.	Social adversity/chronic stress	53,76,78,103,119
	Loneliness and isolation	24,47
	Chronic interpersonal stress	120
	Abuse/interpersonal violence	121
	Rejection	122,123
	Caregiving	67,124
	Early life stress/ACEs	21,125,126

Abbreviations: ACEs, adverse childhood experiences; IFNA, interferon alpha; IFNB, interferon beta; IL1B, interleukin 1 beta; IL6, interleukin 6; TNF, tumor necrosis factor.