Table 2. Barriers and facilitators of non-citizen children’s access to education.
| Barriers | Facilitators | |
|---|---|---|
| Legislative and policy | • Lack of identity documents excludes non-citizen children from public education • Learning centres face difficulties with registration and are a risk of shutdown due to unlicensed operations • Lack of prospects for employment and further education for undocumented persons, including refugees |
• Learning centres do not require legal documents for enrolment • UNHCR protection letter to allow operation of learning centres for refugees • Options for international school-leaving examinations in preparation for resettlement |
| Individual and Family | • Lack of the right to work leads to financial hardship and increased school dropouts • Safety concerns and transportation costs • Bullying and discrimination from local children and teachers • Gender norms, culture and language |
• Borrowing money from the community, part-time work and private sponsorship • Provision of transportation and proximity of learning centres to communities • Learning local languages and the ability to blend in by adopting a more ‘Malaysian’ identity • Early countermeasures applied to sensitize children on cultural differences |
| Community and Educational Institution | • Inadequate information on available education options • Funding constraints limit the hiring of trained teachers and explain the reliance on volunteers • Lack of standardization of syllabus and accreditation of school-leaving examinations • Inadequate physical facilities and infrastructure • Fees, funding, and operational costs Diverse school readiness and educational backgrounds |
• Dissemination of information on available learning centres among the community • Investment in teachers’ training and salaries • Availability of MOE teaching materials, flexible syllabus, and vocational training • Financial support from the government, embassies, employers & philanthropists • Rapid assessment, placement tests and catch-up programmes |
Facilitators are noticeably clustered at lower socio-ecological levels and are insufficient to redress significant structural barriers. The presence and sufficiency of these facilitators vary greatly across non-citizen subgroups and education providers.