Table 1.

Scaffolds loaded with EVs and their potential healing effects

		EV characteristics
Scaffold material	EVs source	Size	Surface markers	Therapeutic effects	Reference
Chitosan glycerol hydrogel	Human endometrial stem cell (hEnSC)	40–150 nm	CD63	Angiogenesis, epithelial layer, and formation of granular tissue development were improved.	Nooshabadi et al.78
Hyaluronic acid	HUC mononuclear cells	100–130 nm	CD9, 63, 81, tumor necrosis factor 101	Increased vascular density, faster wound healing, and full epithelialization.	Mao et al.24
Methylcellulose chitosan hydrogel	Placental MSCs	about 62.5 nm	CD9, 63, 81	Increased migration of fibroblasts, angiogenesis, re-epithelialization. Inhibition of apoptosis.	Wang et al.79
Chitosan and silk	Human gingival MSCs	127 nm	CD9, 81	Wound healing was faster, neoepithelialization was more abundant, collagen was deposited, collagen was wavy.	Shi et al.80
Pluronic F-127, oxidative hyaluronic acid, poly-€-L-lysine based skin graft	ASCs	60–80 nm	CD9,63,8, Alix	Closure of the wound, formation of new dermal appendages, collagen deposition, and re-epithelialization.	Tao et al.81
Human acellular amniotic membrane (hAAM)	AdMSCs	47.7–150 nm	CD9, CD81	Faster ulcer healing, augmented vascularization, increased ECM production, and deposition of collagen.	Xiao et al.82
PEI grafted Pluronic F-127 and aldehyde pullulan	Mouse ASCs	not reported	not reported	EV gel group took less time to repair wounds and deposited more collagen.	Wang et al.83
Chitosan and silk	Human PRP	not reported	not reported	In the EV-gel group, wounds closed faster, fewer skin ulcers developed, collagen deposition was greater, and vessel density was higher.	Xu et al.84
Matrigel	HUC- Wharton’s jelly	30–100 nm	CD81	In comparison with gel alone, EV gel promoted wound closure and collagen deposition.	Bakhtyar et al.85
Peptide	Human uMSCs	100–1,000 nm	CD63,81	In comparison with a blank formulation, uMSCs demonstrated full wound closure, less scar formation, greater expression of the growth factor-SMA, and well-arrangement of healed tissue.	Fang et al.86
Alginate-based hydrogel	ADSCs	not reported	Akt, ERK, STAT3	Vasculature, scar tissue, re-epithelialization, and granulation tissue formation on the wound surface.	Shafei et al.44
Pluronic F-127	hUCMSC-Exo	not reported	CD31, Ki67	Improved exosome ability, improvement in granulation tissue regeneration, and irregular vascular endothelial growth factor expression, potential to improve diabetic wound healing.	Yang et al.87
SIS/MBG based hydrogel	BMSC	not reported	CD9, CD63	Promote granulation tissue formation, well-organized collagen fiber deposition, functional new blood vessel growth.	Hu et al.88
PVA/alginate nanohydrogel	HUCMSCs	not reported	SMA, SR-B1, CD31, CD29, CD34	Facilitate the proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis of HUVECs and speed up the process of diabetic wound healing.	Zhang et al.89
Polyurethane based oxygen releasing scaffolds	ADSCs	200 nm	CD81	Facilitated faster wound closure, enhanced collagen deposition, faster re-epithelialization, and decreased oxidative stress within two weeks.	Shiekh et al.90
Gelatin methacryloyl hydrogel	HUVECs	50–140 nm	CD9, CD63, CD81	The in vivo results showed accelerated re-epithelialization, promotion of collagen maturity and improvement of angiogenesis.	Zhao et al.91