Table 2.
Estimated means and fixed effect statistics of the clinical outcomes at the pre-, post-real-time fMRI neurofeedback session and follow-up
| Baseline | One-week follow-up | Fixed effects | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| active (n = 20), mean (SD) | sham (n = 19), mean (SD) | active (n = 20), mean (SD) | sham (n = 19), mean (SD) | Time | Group | Time × group | |||||
| F | p | F | p | F | p | ||||||
| Primary cliniail outcome | |||||||||||
| RRS | Brooding | 12.85 (3.13) | 12.37 (3.18) | 9.70 (2.87) | 11.84 (3.66) | 17.08 | <0.001 b | 0.77 | 0.39 | 8.70 | 0.005 e |
| Secondary dirlical outcomes | |||||||||||
| RRS | Depression | 31.30 (7.42) | 29.95 (6.42) | 27.35 (6.28) | 28.16 (6.85) | 16.36 | <0.001 c | 0.05 | 0.83 | 2.32 | 0.14 |
| Reflection | 10.80 (3.78) | 11.16 (3.04) | 10.40 (3.17) | 10.26 (3.81) | 2.47 | 0.12 | 0.00 | 0.95 | 0.36 | 0.55 | |
| Total | 54.95 (12.83) | 53.47 (10.91) | 47.45 (8.83) | 50.26 (13.21) | 20.64 | <0.001 d | 0.02 | 0.89 | 3.31 | 0.08 | |
| Exploratory chinical outcomes | |||||||||||
| MADRS | 18.70 (7.32) | 20.63 (4.95) | 13.79 (6.80)a | 15.16 (7.00) | 25.12 | <0.001 | 0.59 | 0.45 | 0.15 | 0.70 | |
| HAMA | 14.55 (5.50) | 17.37 (5.43) | 12.53 (6.79)a | 14.47 (5.70) | 7.04 | 0.01 | 1.91 | 0.18 | 0.25 | 0.62 | |
| PHQ | 11.30 (5.70) | 10.53 (4.14) | 9.00 (5.32) | 8.21 (3.79) | 17.93 | <0.001 | 0.41 | 0.52 | 0.00 | 0.99 | |
| STAI | Trait | 54.75 (9.31) | 53.58 (9.75) | 51.85 (9.65) | 51.26 (9.02) | 11.17 | 0.002 | 0.21 | 0.65 | 0.14 | 0.71 |
| MCQ | Total | 67.25 (12.47) | 66.21 (13.70) | 62.55 (10.87) | 64.74 (14.39) | 7.84 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.92 | 2.14 | 0.15 |
| Lack of cognitive confidence | 13.95 (6.33) | 12.11 (5.10) | 13.45 (6.12) | 12.79 (5.27) | 0.07 | 0.79 | 0.55 | 0.46 | 2.99 | 0.09 | |
| Positive beliefs about worry | 10.15 (3.66) | 10.63 (3.93) | 9.65 (3.10) | 10.84 (5.07) | 0.12 | 0.73 | 0.41 | 0.53 | 0.72 | 0.40 | |
| Cognitive self-consciousness | 15.55 (4.14) | 16.26 (4.94) | 14.35 (4.67) | 15.74 (4.49) | 6.47 | 0.02 | 0.58 | 0.45 | 0.99 | 0.33 | |
| Negative beliefs about uncontrollability and danger | 14.90 (5.59) | 14.79 (5.13) | 13.20 (4.93) | 14.26 (4.68) | 5.21 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.79 | 1.45 | 0.24 | |
| Need to control thoughts | 12.70 (3.42) | 12.42 (3.25) | 11.90 (2.75) | 11.11 (2.56) | 11.59 | 0.002 | 0.31 | 0.58 | 0.69 | 0.41 | |
| TCQ | Total | 62.30 (7.21) | 62.74 (7.32) | 62.20 (6.56) | 62.95 (6.71) | 0.01 | 0.92 | 0.05 | 0.82 | 0.08 | 0.78 |
| Distraction | 14.35 (2.92) | 14.32 (2.85) | 15.65 (3.36) | 15.05 (1.87) | 10.25 | 0.003 | 0.18 | 0.67 | 0.78 | 0.38 | |
| Social control | 14.50 (2.37) | 13.79 (1.81) | 14.55 (1.67) | 13.74 (1.82) | 0.00 | 0.10 | 1.89 | 0.18 | 0.03 | 0.86 | |
| Worry | 10.25 (2.29) | 10.58 (3.73) | 9.20 (2.19) | 10.47 (3.85) | 2.69 | 0.11 | 0.71 | 0.40 | 1.80 | 0.19 | |
| Punishment | 10.25 (2.92) | 10.16 (2.52) | 9.55 (2.42) | 9.26 (2.18) | 9.36 | 0.004 | 0.10 | 0.76 | 0.14 | 0.71 | |
| Reappraisal | 12.95 (2.70) | 13.89 (2.45) | 13.25 (3.01) | 14.42 (2.59) | 1.70 | 0.20 | 1.70 | 0.20 | 0.13 | 0.72 | |
| ERQ | Cognitive reappraisal | 22.90 (8.06) | 27.05 (7.92) | 26.55 (6.97) | 29.21 (4.50) | 7.33 | 0.01 | 2.88 | 0.10 | 0.48 | 0.49 |
| Expressive suppression | 15.70 (4.60) | 14.79 (4.93) | 16.45 (5.20) | 14.79 (4.89) | 0.28 | 0.60 | 0.75 | 0.39 | 0.28 | 0.60 | |
| Baseline | Post-rtfMRI-nf | Fixed effects | |||||||||
| active (n = 20), mean (SD) | sham (n = 19), mean (SD) | active (n = 20), mean (SD) | sham (n = 19), mean (SD) | Time | Group | Time × group | |||||
| F | p | F | p | F | p | ||||||
| PANAS | Negative affect | 14.60 (4.04) | 15.11 (3.78) | 12.05 (2.09) | 11.47 (2.01) | 34.67 | <0.001 | 0.00 | 0.99 | 1.06 | 0.31 |
| Positive affect | 21.50 (5.51) | 20.21 (3.81) | 24.30 (7.73) | 23.42 (7.39) | 9.44 | 0.004 | 0.31 | 0.58 | 0.04 | 0.83 | |
| Fear | 8.90 (2.99) | 8.74 (2.88) | 7.65 (2.25) | 7.26 (1.91) | 14.33 | <0.001 | 0.13 | 0.72 | 0.10 | 0.75 | |
| Hostility | 8.00 (2.53) | 7.42 (2.27) | 6.75 (1.16) | 6.26 (0.56) | 13.55 | <0.001 | 1.09 | 0.30 | 0.02 | 0.89 | |
| Guilt | 10.15 (4.88) | 10.05 (3.41) | 7.55 (2.61) | 7.00 (1.67) | 24.42 | <0.001 | 0.12 | 0.73 | 0.16 | 0.69 | |
| Sadness | 9.80 (3.91) | 10.11 (4.01) | 6.75 (2.27) | 7.00 (2.60) | 46.34 | <0.001 | 0.10 | 0.76 | 0.00 | 0.95 | |
| Joviality | 13.95 (5.11) | 12.79 (2.80) | 17.30 (8.33) | 17.42 (6.21) | 15.98 | <0.001 | 0.06 | 0.80 | 0.41 | 0.52 | |
| Self-Assurance | 11.30 (4.75) | 10.74 (3.93) | 11.75 (5.38) | 13.11 (5.15) | 7.55 | 0.01 | 0.19 | 0.67 | 3.50 | 0.07 | |
| Attentiveness | 10.80 (2.84) | 10.58 (2.39) | 10.95 (3.07) | 10.21 (2.94) | 0.05 | 0.82 | 0.39 | 0.54 | 0.29 | 0.59 | |
| Shyness | 5.85 (2.52) | 6.21 (1.75) | 4.55 (1.79) | 4.84 (1.30) | 31.84 | <0.001 | 0.49 | 0.49 | 0.02 | 0.89 | |
| Fatigue | 10.85 (5.04) | 10.26 (4.71) | 8.50 (3.91) | 9.89 (4.14) | 3.03 | 0.09 | 0.14 | 0.71 | 1.61 | 0.21 | |
| Serenity | 9.00 (3.26) | 8.53 (2.82) | 9.45 (2.39) | 9.32 (2.21) | 2.41 | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.74 | 0.18 | 0.67 | |
| Surprise | 3.60 (1.14) | 3.42 (1.02) | 4.50 (1.73) | 5.26 (2.64) | 22.16 | <0.001 | 0.42 | 0.52 | 2.62 | 0.11 | |
Means and standard deviations (SD) of symptom and cognitive outcome measures at the baseline (before rtfMRI-nf), post-rtfMRI-nf, and 1-week follow-up. RRS, Ruminative Response Scale; MADRS, Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale; HAMA, Hamilton Anxiety Scale; PHQ, Patient Health Questionnaire-9; STAI, The State-Trait Anxiety Inventor-Trait; PANAS, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule - Expanded Form; MCQ, Metacognition Questionnaire-30; TCQ, Thought Control Questionnaire; ERQ, Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. a n = 19. All p values are presented uncorrected for multiple comparisons. For the primary and secondary clinical outcomes, false discovery rate (FDR) correction for multiple comparisons on the fixed effects yielded pFDR = 0.004b, 0.0002c, 0.001d, and 0.02e. Exploratory clinical outcomes were uncorrected.