TABLE 2.
Common aetiologies, gender (%), CRS prevalence, and biomarker levels in patients hospitalised for symptomatic AHF. Ischaemic heart disease (IHD), acute heart failure (AHF), acute decompensated heart failure (ADHF), diabetes mellitus (DM), acute kidney injury (AKI), chronic kidney disease (CKD), coronary artery disease (CAD), myocardial ischemia (MI), heart failure (HF), and acute coronary syndrome (ACS) are the most common comorbidities in acute CRS patients worldwide. Values are the mean ± SD (standard deviation).
| Primary setting | Aetiology of AHF | Gender prevalence | AKI/WRF | Biomarkers and levels (mean ± SD) | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ADHF | Diabetes | — | 58 out of 145 patients developed AKI (40%) | sCr 1.9 ± 0.9 mg/dL | Mullens et al. (2009) |
| Hypertension | — | — | BUN 58 ± 25 mg/dL | — | |
| Hyperlipidaemia | — | — | GFR 48 ± 19 mL/min/1.73 m2 | — | |
| — | — | — | BNP 1,559 ± 1,340 pg/mL | — | |
| ADHF | Hypertension (85.6%) | 60.9% male | 174 out of 705 patients had WRF (15%) | sCr > 1.4 mg/dL | Nunez et al. (2017) |
| Diabetes (56.3%) | — | — | eGFR 33 mL/min/1.73 m2 | — | |
| — | — | — | Urea 92 ± 35 mg/dL hs-TnT 49 ng/L | — | |
| — | — | — | Haemoglobin 11.4 ± 1.8 g/dL | — | |
| — | — | — | LVEF 47.9% ± 15.8% | — | |
| — | — | — | Left atrium diameter 43.5 ± 7.3 mm | — | |
| Children hospitalized for symptomatic heart failure | Dilated cardiomyopathy (52%) | 55% male | 35 out of 73 were admitted (49%) | sCr > 1.0 ± 0.7 mg/dL | Price et al. (2008) |
| — | ADHF (26%) | — | — | BUN 25 ± 18 mg/dL | — |
| — | Ischemic cardiomyopathy (10%) | — | — | BNP 2480 ± 1,465 pg/mL | — |
| — | Myocarditis (12%) | — | — | — | — |
| ADHF | Ischemic heart disease in 56% of progressive AKI vs. 55% in non-progressive AKI. | 52% of males developed progressive AKI, while 66.3% of males were in the non-progressive AKI group | 213 out of 732 patients developed AKI (29%) | sCr >1.5 ± 0.8 mg/dL in progressive AKI compared to >1.6 ± 0.8 mg/dL in non-progressive AKI. | Chen et al. (2016) |
| — | — | — | NT-proBNP - 9,000 pg/mL in progressive AKI compared to 6,647 in non-progressive AKI. | — | |
| — | — | — | Haemoglobin 10.8 ± 2.4 g/dL in progressive AKI compared to 11.8 ± 2.6 g/dL in non-progressive AKI. | — | |
| — | — | — | eGFR 59.1 ± 28.3 mL/min per 1.73 m2 in progressive AKI compared to 63.4 ± 24.0 mL/min/1.73 m2 | — | |
| AHF/ADHF | Arterial hypertension (70.8%) | 51.4% male | 34.53% | sCr (D1) level of 2.44 [1.47–4.09] mg/dL and eGFR CKDEPID1 22 [13–44] mL/min per 1.73 m2 | Phan Thai et al. (2020) |
| Diabetes mellitus (42.6%) | 48 out of 139 developed CRS type 1 | sCr (D3) level of 2.84 [1.38–4.8] mg/dL and eGFR CKDEPID3 19.5 [11–47.5] mL/min per 1.73m2 | — | ||
| HF (35.4%) | — | — | Urea 12.67 [8.51–19.27] mmol/L | — | |
| Acute MI (40.9%) | — | — | NGAL 506.49 [322.51–591.80] ng/mL | — | |
| ADHF (50%) | — | — | NT-proBNP 20131 [6,350–35,000] pg/mL | — | |
| AHF | HF (46%) | 44% male | 46 out of 292 patients developed AKI (15.75%) | sCr 0.98 (0.87–1.48) mg/dL | Lassus et al. (2010) |
| Coronary artery disease (70%) | — | — | Cystatin C 1.44 (1.16–1.91) mg/L | — | |
| MI (30%) | — | — | NT-proBNP—7,379 (3,517–16,883) pg/mL | — | |
| Hypertension (63%) | — | — | — | — | |
| Diabetes (37%) | — | — | — | — | |
| Chronic atrial fibrillation (26%) | — | — | — | — | |
| Children undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass surgery | — | 65% male | 20 out of 71 developed AKI (28%) | sCr change is 99% | Mishra et al. (2005) |
| Acute MI | Hypertension (65.9%) | 63.4% male | 410 out of 1,371 patients developed AKI (29.9%) | Baseline eGFR is 52.5 mL/min per 1.73m2 | Sun et al. (2016) |
| Hyperuricemia (31.5%) | — | — | Haemoglobin 127.5 g/L | ||
| Diabetes (38.5%) | — | — | LVEF 55% | ||
| Acute infection (34.9%) | — | — | — | ||
| Acute HF syndrome (AHFS) | Ischemic etiology of heart failure (70.19%) | 71.1% male | 115 out of 448 patients (25.7%) | Baseline sCr is 1.7 ± 0.7 mg/dL in transient WRF and 2.1 ± 1.4 mg/dL in persistent WRF | Aronson and Burger (2010) |
| Diabetes mellitus (56.7%) | — | — | Baseline eGFR is 49 ± 23 mL/min per 1.73 m2 in transient and 42 ± 24 mL/min per 1.73 m2 in persistent WRF | — | |
| Atrial fibrillation (41.3%) | — | — | — | — | |
| HF/ADHF patients | Atrial fibrillation (58%) | 71.7% male | 244 out of 635 patients (38.3%) | Baseline eGFR, 65.3 ± 26.5 mL/min per 1.73 m2 | Roy et al. (2013) |
| — | Diabetes (30.5%) | — | — | — | — |
| ADHF | Arterial hypertension (71%) | 61% male* | 136 out of 657 patients (20.7%) | Urea 12.6 [8.6–22.1] mmol/L sCr 115 [86–156] mmol/L | Breidthardt et al. (2011) |
| Heart failure (61%) | — | — | GFR 49 [21–68] mL/min per 1.73 m2 | — | |
| CAD (53%) | — | — | BNP 1071 (709–1,714) pg/mL | — | |
| Diabetes mellitus (36%) | — | — | — | — | |
| CKD (58%) | — | — | — | — | |
| ACS | Hypertension (60.5%) | 53.5% male | 36 out of 236 patients (15.2%) | BUN 26.75 ± 15.72 mg/dL sCr 1.23 ± 0.68 1.98 ± 1.41 | Eren et al. (2012) |
| Diabetes mellitus (39.4%) | — | — | eGFR 66.69 ± 26.67 mL/min per 1.73 m2 | — | |
| CKD (46.5%) | — | — | Haemoglobin 12.39 ± 2.50 g/dL | — | |
| — | — | — | EF (%) 46.11 ± 9.93 | — | |
| ADHF | — | — | 35 out of 53 patients (66%) | BUN 48.22 ± 26.53 mg/dL sCr 1.98 ± 1.41 mg/dL | Eren et al. (2012) |
| — | — | — | eGFR 37.62 ± 18.35 mL/min per 1.73 m2 | ||
| — | — | — | Haemoglobin 11.24 ± 2.03 g/dL | ||
| — | — | — | EF (%) 37.94 ± 12.00 | ||
| ADHF | IHD (32.3%) | 56.7% male | 275 out of 376 (73.1%) | sCr 1.33 ± 0.79 mg/dL | Hata et al. (2010) |
| Valvular heart disease (32.3%) | — | — | BNP 1110 ± 1,203 mg/mL | ||
| Hypertensive heart disease (17.4%) | — | — | — | ||
| Cardiomyopathy (13.4%) | — | — | — | ||
| AHF | Hypertension (65%) | 52.7% male | 391 out of 614 (63.6%) | eGFR 56.4 ± 27.0 mL/min per 1.73 m2 | Li et al. (2014) |
| Diabetes (26.6%) | — | — | Hb 112 ± 26 g/L | ||
| IHD (27.2%) | — | — | — | ||
| AHF | Hypertension (50%) | 60% male | 152 out of 416 (36.5%) | eGFR 59 ± 41 mL/min per 1.73 m2 | Logeart et al. (2008) |
| Diabetes (30%) | — | — | Hb 12.1 ± 1.7 g/dL | ||
| Ischemic cardiopathy (62%) | — | — | — | ||
| AHF | Coronary artery disease (61%) | 68% male | 107 out of 318 (33.6%) | QRS duration 136 ± 41 ms (+9 ms increase) | Metra et al. (2008) |
| Idiopathic cardiomyopathy (34%) | — | — | sCr is 1.45 ± 0.67 mg/dL (peak 2.26 ± 1.06 mg/dL) | ||
| — | — | — | BUN 69 ± 37 mg/dL (peak 102 ± 61 mg/dL) | ||
| — | — | — | GFR 62 ± 37 mL/min, decreasing to lowest at 36 ± 10 mL/min | ||
| — | — | — | LVEF (%) decreased | ||
| Acute ST elevation MI | Hypertension (52%) | 72% male | 98 out of 1,019 patients (9.6%) | BUN 26 [16–31] mg/dL sCr 1.2 [1.0–1.6] mg/dL | Goldberg et al. (2005) |
| Diabetes (20%) | — | — | GFR 59 [42–80] mL/min | ||
| ACS | Hypertension (65%) | 74% male | 409 out of 3,210 (12.7%) | sCr is 1.6 ± 1 mg/dL | Marenzi et al. (2013) |
| Hyperlipidaemia (36%) | — | — | eGFR 53 ± 23 mL/min per 1.73 m2 | ||
| MI (35%) | — | — | LVEF (%)—42 ± 14 | ||
| ADHF | Ischemia 37.7% | 95 (54.6%) males | Early AKI 174 out of 625 (27.8%) | BUN 32.6 ± 21.5 mg/dL | Shirakabe et al. (2013) |
| — | — | — | sCr 1.57 ± 1.02 mg/dL | ||
| — | — | — | BNP 1,230.7 ± 1,305.8 pg/mL | ||
| Ischemia 42.9% | 104 (61.2%) males | Late AKI 170 out of 625 (27.2%) | BUN 23.5 ± 10.4 mg/dL sCr 1.21 ± 0.68 mg/dL | ||
| — | — | — | BNP 983.0 ± 1,376.9 pg/mL | ||
| AHF/ADHF (total 419 admitted) | Hypertension 50% | 67.7% male | 78.3% survived (328) | HR (bpm) 86.3 ± 21.1 | Wang et al. (2020) |
| 66.1% male | Diabetes mellitus 20.7% | — | — | Hb 13.5 ± 2.1 g/dL | |
| — | Atrial fibrillation 36% | — | — | NT-proBNP 1,091.5–4,643.5 (2035.0) pg/mL | |
| — | — | — | — | BUN 5.6–8.5 (6.8) mM | |
| — | — | — | — | GFR 63.9–97.6 (79.3) mL/min per 1.73 m2 | |
| — | — | — | — | Uric acid 463.5 ± 148.8 μM | |
| — | — | — | — | QRS duration 128.4 ± 40.7 ms | |
| — | Hypertension 42.9% | 60.4% male | 21.7% died (91) | HR (bpm) 83.5 ± 21.3 | Wang et al. (2020) |
| — | Diabetes mellitus 25.3% | — | — | Hb 12.6 ± 2.2 g/dL | |
| — | Atrial fibrillation 37.4% | — | — | NT-proBNP 1,662.3–7,972.8 (2,926.0) pg/mL | |
| — | — | — | — | BUN 6.5–11.6 (9.1) mM | |
| — | — | — | — | GFR 42.5–91.1 (62.3) mL/min per 1.73 m2 | |
| — | — | — | — | Uric acid 537.4 ± 212.0 μM | |
| — | — | — | — | QRS duration 133.9 ± 38.3 ms |