Table 3.

Educational (11 articles; 16.7% total).

First author, Year of publication3	Type	Results
Andriole et al. (2015)	National data from the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) Pre-MCAT Questionnaire of 213,497 respondents who subsequently completed the MCAT.	16.2% (34,539) of the respondents were URiM and just over a third of these (11,842) participated in research in college.
	Goal: To evaluate the effect of participation in college laboratory research apprenticeship.	There was a positive, independent association between research participation and medical-school acceptance, independent of their MCAT scores. However, the magnitude of the observed relationship was modest (a 12% higher likelihood of acceptance).
Chan et al. (2022)	Single institution study of 184 medical students who graduated from either high quality or low-quality high schools as determined by high school reading proficiency (HSRP >50% is considered high quality school).	Statistically significant differences in average exam performance between the high-quality and low-quality school-attended groups were found for the MCAT (508.24 vs. 509.86, p = 0.025).
	Goal: To determine if there are group differences in MCAT scores between high-and low-quality high schools.
Cosentino et al. (2015)	Mixed-methods external evaluation of the impact of the RWJF Summer Medical and Dental Education Program (SMDEP). The outcomes analysis was for 6,826 undergraduate students (64% URiM) who participated in SMDEP.	Eighty-three percent of participants earned a bachelor’s degree compared to national data of about 59 percent of all students (40 percent for blacks and American Indian or Alaskan Native and 52 percent for Hispanics).
		Fifty-five percent of participants applied to either medical or dental school or both. Of those who apply, 68% subsequently matriculated.
Freeman et al., 2016	Cross-Sectional study of 82 (100% URiM) undergraduate students.	Respondents noted lack of access to advising mentors and health related opportunities as significant barrier. Family conflict and cost were also noted.
	Qualitative survey.
	Goal: To identify potential barriers for undergraduate students to applying to medical school.
Goode and Landefeld (2018)	Commentary	Discussion of the lack of diversity in healthcare. Noted that educational barriers for URiM students include implicit bias, disparities in reading levels (k-12), need for remedial English and math courses in college, and ineffective advising along the pipeline.
Joseph J. et al. (2021)	Single-institution study of 35 undergraduate or postbaccalaureate participants (48% URiM).	Participants noted lack of diversity in the medical fields.
	Qualitative survey.	Lack of complete understanding and information needed to navigate the application process to become a medical professional.
	Goal: To determine barriers/facilitators to pursuing a medical career.	Participants indicated access to mentoring and guidance by medical trainees and professionals as likely to facilitate a medical career.
Kadavakollu et al., 2022	Single institution study of 78 students in a premedical enrichment program for diverse students (Over 40% URiM, 95% from medically underserved areas, MUAs).	38 of the 78 students self-reported MCAT scores for an average of 504 ± 6.2. Three students (7.9% of total) scored below the 34th percentile, 24 (63.2%) scored between the 35 and 68th percentile, and 11 (28.9%) scored above the 68th percentile, with three of those students scoring above the 90th percentile.
	Goal: To evaluate the success of an enrichment program aimed at students from rural or MUAs.	Medical school matriculation was self-reported after the enrichment program by 27 (36.0%) students. Sixteen of those 27 (59.2%) matriculated into osteopathic medical schools, nine (33.3%) into allopathic medical schools, one student to a Doctor of Podiatric Medicine program, and one to a Doctor of Naturopathic Medicine.
	Comparison group: national MCAT averages.
Mason et al. (2022)	Multi-site study: Examined national data for 211,216 students (24.8% identified as first-generation college graduates) who took the MCAT and completed the AAMC Pre-Medical College Admissions Test Questionnaire.	Students with (vs. without) paid work experience outside hospitals/labs/clinics were less likely to apply, be accepted, and matriculate into medical school.
	Goal: To evaluate the role of paid work or summer programs on likelihood of medical school application.	Students who participated in a college research apprenticeship, a summer academic-enrichment program, and paid or volunteer work in hospital/clinic/lab settings were more likely to apply to medical school.
Schneid et al. (2022a)	Single institution study of 75 academically disadvantaged students (31% URiM) in a prematriculation enrichment program	Prematriculation students MCAT average 31.9 ± 3.3 vs. Control: group 34.5 ± 3.1.
	Goal: To evaluate the effectiveness of a summer prematriculation program for academically disadvantaged students by looking at MCAT scores and performance in Year 1 of medical school.	Prematriculation participants performed significantly better than control group in Year 1 courses that were covered in the prematriculation program compared to courses that were not covered.
	Control group: 293 non-participants.	The overall performance in the prematriculation program correlated significantly with Year 1 performance and was found to be a strong predictor for Year 1 performance.
Thurmond and Cregler (1996)	Single institution study of 55 diverse high-school students (100% URiM) in a premedical research apprentice program.	All 55 participants matriculated to a college or university. Twenty-nine (53%) of these students graduated from college. Seventeen of 29 students (59%) matriculated into medical school.
	Goal: To determine effect of a research experience in the student pipeline.	30.1% of white students graduate from high school, and 14.6% obtain a baccalaureate degree compared with 28% of blacks who graduate from high school, and 7.5% who graduate from college.
	Comparison group: State-wide high-school and graduation rates.
Toretsky et al. (2018)	Literature review and interviews to summarize known barriers to URiM students entering the health professions.	In California, the barriers include: (1) Lack of academic preparation; admissions requirements, especially for doctoral degree programs; (2) Lack of concordant mentors; (3) Stereotype threat; (4) Limited exposure to health careers; and (5) Poor advising.

³Publications referenced by first author and year.