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(A) Anti-elastase activity, (B) proliferation- and (C) hyaluronic acid production-promoting effects, and (D) release rate of type I collagen of all-E- and Z-isomer-rich astaxanthin. The error bars show standard deviations across three independent tests. Asterisks (*) indicate a statistically significant difference between carotenoids rich in all-E-isomers and Z-isomers (*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, Welch’s t-test).
