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Possible mechanisms of action for TUDCA in the beta cells. (A) TUDCA binds to many receptors, including transmembrane receptors GPCR1, S1PR, and a5b1, and intracellular receptors FXR, VDR, PXR, GR, and CAR. (B) TUDCA can modulate insulin secretion through the TGR5 receptor. Activating the TGR5 pathway inhibits the pro-inflammatory factor NF-kB and activates adenylate cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP, leading to insulin secretion.
