Table 1.

Summary of methods to identify gait events from running using data from a single wearable on the shank or sacrum/lower back. M—male; F—female; NR—not reported; FF—forefoot; RF—rearfoot; SS—self-selected; α—acceleration; ω—angular velocity; SCS—segment coordinate system; WCS—wearable coordinate system; GCS—global coordinate system (coordinate conventions defined below). IC—initial contact; TC—terminal contact; RL—right/left.

Sensor Location	Method	Sample	Foot-Strike	Speed	Surface	Placement	Signals	Sampling Frequency	Events	Ground Truth	Sync
Shank	Mizrahi [36]	n = 14 (14 M) Healthy	NR	3.5 ± 0.2 m/s	Treadmill	Tibial tuberosity	$a_{WCS,Y}$	1667 Hz	IC	None	N/A
	Mercer [27]	n = 10 (10 M) Healthy	NR	3.1–3.8 m/s	Treadmill	Anteromedial distal tibia	$a_{WCS,Y}$	1000 Hz	IC, TC	None	N/A
	Purcell [28]	n = 6 Healthy	NR	SS jog, run, and sprint	Overground	Anteromedial distal tibia	$a_{WCS,X,Y,\&Z}$	250 Hz	IC, TC	Forceplate 1000 Hz	TTL pulse
	Greene/McGrath [29,45]	n = 5 (4 M; 1 F) Healthy	RF	0.6–3.3 m/s	Treadmill	Anterior aspect of mid shank	${\omega }_{WCS,Z}$	102.4 Hz	IC, TC	MoCap 200 Hz	TTL pulse
	Aminian/ O’Donovan [35,46]	n = 1 (1 M) Healthy	NR	SS jog	Overground	Shank	${\omega }_{SCS,Z}$	102.4 Hz	IC, TC	MoCap 200 Hz	TTL pulse
	Sinclair [37]	n = 16 (11 M; 5 F)	RF	4.0 ± 0.2 m/s	Overground	Anteromedial distal tibia	$a_{WCS,Y}$	1000 Hz	IC, TC	Forceplate 1000 Hz	Synchronous recording
	Whelan [30]	n = 7 (3 M; 4 F) National and international sprinters	NR	≤50% max effort	Overground	Anteromedial mid-tibia	$a_{WCS,X}$	148.2 Hz	IC	Forceplate 1000 Hz	TTL pulse
	Norris [31]	n = 6 (1 M; 5 F) Recreational	NR	SS half-marathon training	Overground	Anteromedial distal tibia	$a_{WCS,Z}$	204.8 Hz	IC	None	N/A
	Schmidt [38]	n = 12 (10 M; 2 F) Track and field athletes	NR	SS sprint	Overground	Lateral distal tibia	$a_{WCS,Y}$ ${\omega }_{WCS,Z}$	1000 Hz	IC, TC	Photocell	NR
	Aubol [39]	n = 19 (9 M; 10 F) ≥16.1 km/wk Injury free	RF	3.0 ± 0.2 m/s	Overground	Anteromedial distal tibia	$a_{WCS,X,Y,\&Z}$	1000 Hz	IC	Forceplate 1000 Hz	Synchronous recording
	Fadillioglu [40]	n = 13 (13 M) Injury free	NR	SS walking and running	Overground	Leg	${\omega }_{WCS,Z}$	1500 Hz	IC, TC	Forceplate 1000 Hz	TTL pulse
	Bach [43]	n = 21 (13 M; 8 F) Healthy	NR	2.2 ± 0.1 m/s	Treadmill	Anteromedial proximal tibia	$a_{WCS,X,Y,\&Z}$	142.9 Hz	IC, TC	Forceplate 1000 Hz	NR
Sacrum/Lower back	Auvinet [32]	n = 7 (7 M) “top-level”	RF	5.2 ± 0.1 m/s	Overground	Lumbar spine	$a_{WCS,X,Y,\&Z}$	100 Hz	IC, TC, RL	MoCap 200 Hz	Photoflash
	Lee [33]	n = 10 (6 M; 4 F) National standard runners	NR	2.8–5.3 m/s	Treadmill	Sacrum (S1)	$a_{WCS,X\&Z}$	100 Hz	IC, TC, RL	MoCap 100 Hz	Vertical movement
	Wixted [34]	n = 2 Nationally ranked	NR	5.9–6.2 m/s	Overground	Lumbar spine (L3–L4)	$a_{WCS,X\&Y}$	500 Hz	IC, TC	Insoles 500 Hz	Synchronous collection
	Bergamini [41]	n = 11 (7 M; 4 F) Amateur and national track and field team	NR	5.7–10.8 m/s	Overground	Lumbar spine (L1)	${\omega }_{WCS,X,Y,\&Z}$	200 Hz	IC, TC	Forceplate/Mocap 200 Hz/300 Hz	Hammer tap/ none
	Benson [44]	n = 54 (29 M; 25 F) Recreational	FF and RF	2.7–3.6 m/s	Treadmill and Overground	Lower back	$a_{WCS,X,Y,\&Z}$	201 Hz	IC, TC, RL	Forceplate 1000 Hz	Vertical jump
	Reenalda [42]	n = 20 (15 M; 5 F) ≥15 km/week; no injuries	FF and RF	3.1–4.2 m/s	Treadmill	Sacrum	$a_{GCS,Y}$	240 Hz interpolated to 1000 Hz	IC	Forceplate 1000 Hz	x-correlated MoCap