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. 2023 May 1;9(5):e16008. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e16008

Table 2.

Description of the papers reporting impacts of driving anxiety through surveys and focus group.

Study Country Participants
 Questionnaires Driving Anxiety Other Questionnaires Main results on behavioural impact
N age rang (mean ± SD) Gender Female/Male Characteristic
Barnard & Chapman (2018)
[24]		 United Kingdom 227 17 to 81 (35 ± 18.4) 65.6% F
33.4% M		 Licensed drivers
  • -

    Modified version of State-Trait Inventory of Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety while driving (STICSA)

  • -

    Driving Cognitions Questionnaire (DCQ)
  • -

    Driving Behaviour Survey (DBS)

 Driving anxiety predicts anxiety-based performance deficits, exaggerated safety-cautious behaviours and total DBS scores
Clapp et al. (2014)
[25]		 USA 3 groups A: 40
B: 515
C: 316		 A: (40.8 ± 13.3)
B: (19.1 ± 1.7)
C: (19.5 ± 1.8)		 A:62.5% F
37.5% M
B: 45.6% F
54.4% M
C: 47.6% F
52.4% M		 A: Crash related post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
B: Students
C: Students involved in crash
  • -

    Driving Behaviour Survey (DBS)
  • -

    Driving and Riding Avoidance Scale (DRAS)

  • -

    Clinical Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS)

  • -

    Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

 In group A, medium correlation between CAPS and hostile/aggressive driving.
Greater level of safety and caution behaviour and of anxiety based performance deficits in PTSD
Dula et al. (2010)
[8]		 USA 1121 17 to 55 (21.23 ± 5.61) 67.4% F
32.6% M		 Licensed drivers
  • -

    Negative Emotional Driving subscale of Dula Dangerous Driving Index (3DI-NCE)
  • -

    13 relevant traffic safety variables

  • -

    3DI-Risky-driving and 3DI-Aggressive-driving subscale

  • -

    Propensity for Angry Driving Scale

  • -

    Beck Anxiety Inventory

 Mean-13 measure, which is an indicator of dangerous driving, was significantly and positively correlated with 3DI-NCE (and the other variables)
Fort et al. (2021)
[6]		 France 304 18 to 77 (36.96 ± 13.6) 79.9% F
20.1% M		 Individuals concerned by driving anxiety
  • -

    Driving anxiety scale (11 point Likert scale)
  • -

    Driving and Riding Avoidance Scale (DRAS) and Total avoidance

  • -

    Driving Cognitions Questionnaire (DCQ)

  • -

    Impact on quality of personal and occupational life

 The more intense the driving anxiety, the stronger the avoidance (by DRAS)
Gwyther & Holland (2014)
[26]		 United Kingdom 48 18 to 75 (33.89 ± 20.5) 83.3% F
12.7% M		 Licensed drivers
  • -

    General feelings about driving (enjoyment/dislike)

  • -

    Confidence when driving

  • -

    Vulnerability feelings
  • -

    Coping behaviours

 Qualitative data: avoidance and over-regulation type behaviours were employed by anxious drivers to manage feelings of vulnerability
Kontogianni (2006)
[27]		 Greece 714 7.6% < 25 52% > 55 33% F
67% M		 Workers
  • -

    Driving Behaviour Inventory (DBI)
  • -

    Driver Skills Inventory (DSI)

  • -

    Reduced version of Driving Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ)

  • -

    Coping behaviour

 People scoring high in dislike of driving reported more mistakes and lapses (by DBQ)
Lucidi et al. (2010)
[28]		 Italy 1008 18 to 23 (18.33 ± 0.7) 43.2% F
56.8% M		 Licensed drivers
  • -

    NEO-Personality Inventory-Revised

  • -

    Normlessness Scale

  • -

    Driving Anger Scale

  • -

    Locus of control orientation in driving
  • -

    Driving Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ)

  • -

    Attitudes toward traffic rules

  • -

    Accident risk perception

 Identification of 3 groups: risky, worried and careful drivers. Worried drivers showed intermediate scores on driving violations and errors (by DBQ), more positive attitudes toward traffic safety than risky drivers, but a similar number of lapses
Mairean (2020)
[29]		 Romania 162 19 to 57 (29.37 ± 9.52) 37% F
63% M		 Crash survivors
  • -

    Travel Phobia Questionnaire for driving (12 items)
  • -

    Driving Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ)

  • -

    Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Scale

 Positive correlation between PTSD symptoms and slips and lapses, and with errors (by DBQ). Positive correlation between fear and avoidance and slips and lapses, and with errors
Nees et al. (2021)
[30]		 USA 601 18 to 75 (35.27 ± 13.6) 53.6% F
46,1% M		 Licensed drivers
  • -

    Multidimensional Driving Style Inventory (MDSI)

  • -

    Accident Concern Scale
  • -

    Driving Skill Self-rating

  • -

    Driving Speed Questionnaire

  • -

    Desirability of Control Scale

  • -

    Illusion of Control Scale

  • -

    Accidents, Violations, and Close Calls questionnaire

 Anxious driving style is associated with more self-reported accidents, violations and close calls (MDSI)
Nordfjaern & Rundmo (2013)
[31]		 Norway 1731 18 to 65 (47.22 ± 11.8) 48.1% F
51.9% M		 Licensed drivers
  • -

    Road traffic relates worry
  • -

    Driver, perceived safety skills behaviours

  • -

    Attitudes towards road traffic safety

  • -

    NEO-Personality inventory

 People who scored high anxiety and reported low normlessness and sensation seeking traits had the safest behaviours related to road traffic
Przepiorka et al. (2020)
[32]		 Poland 310 18 to 51 (24.4 ± 6.1) 51% F
49% M		 Licensed drivers and learners, mainly students
  • -

    Driving Behaviour Survey (DBS)

  • -

    Driving Cognitions Questionnaire (DCQ)
  • -

    Driving and Riding Avoidance Scale (DRAS)

  • -

    State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.

 Positive correlations between anxiety-based performance deficits and exaggerated safety/caution behaviours (by DBS) and avoidance (by DRAS)
Stephens et al. (2020)
[7]		 Australia 535 18 to 67 (24.96 ± 9.7) 93% F
7% M		 Individuals concerned by driving anxiety
  • -

    Driving anxiety scale (11 point Likert scale)
  • -

    Driving and Riding Avoidance Scale (DRAS)

  • -

    Driving Cognitions Questionnaire

  • -

    Reported impact on quality of personal and occupational life

 Higher driving anxiety, higher avoidance for traffic, driving under certain weather conditions and certain types of roads as well as riding a car (by DRAS)
Steward & St. Peter (2004)
[33]		 USA 118 (study 3) range not specified (19.9 ± 1.8) 67.8% F
32.2% M		 Crash survivors, mainly students
  • -

    Fear Survey Schedule-II (FSS-II, subscale)
  • -

    Driving and Riding Avoidance Scale (DRAS)

  • -

    Mobility Inventory (subscale)

  • -

    Accident fear questionnaire

  • -

    Fear questionnaire

 According to the study 3 of the article greater overall level of fear (FSS-II) was related to increased driving and riding avoidance (by DRAS)
Taylor & Paki (2008)
[34]		 New Zealand 99 15 to 69 (38.8 ± 15.3) 57.6% F
42.4% M		 No specified
  • -

    Driving anxiety scale (11 point Likert scale)
  • -

    Driving Situations Questionnaire (DSQ)

  • -

    Driving Cognitions Questionnaire (DCQ)

  • -

    State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)

 Moderate avoidance, more pronounced in women than men
Taylor (2018)
[2]		 New Zealand 441 18 to 87 (54 ± 17) 66% F
44% M		 No specified
  • -

    Driving anxiety scale (11 point Likert scale)
  • -

    Driving and Riding Avoidance Scale (DRAS)

  • -

    Driving Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ)

  • -

    Driving Situations Questionnaire (DSQ)

  • -

    Driving Cognitions Questionnaire (DCQ)

  • -

    Driving Behaviour Survey (DBS)

  • -

    Driver Social Desirability Scale (DSDS)

 Those with high driving anxiety did not have more driving-related incidents, accidents, or injuries than people with no driving anxiety, but they report more frequent anxiety-based performance deficits, exaggerated safety/caution, and hostile/aggressive behaviours
Taylor et al. (2020)
[35]		 New Zealand 437 18-87 (54 ± 17) 66% F
44% M		 No specified
  • -

    Driving anxiety scale (11 point Likert scale)
  • -

    Driving and Riding Avoidance Scale (DRAS)

  • -

    Driving Situations Questionnaire (DSQ)

 General and traffic avoidance and weather and riding avoidance were both moderately positively related to increased anxiety and avoidance of driving situations measures (by DSQ and DRAS)
Taylor et al. (2021)
[36]		 New Zealand 420 18 to 87 (54 ± 17) 66% F
44% M		 Licensed drivers and learners (random sample from electoral roll)
  • -

    Driving Situations Questionnaire (DSQ)

  • -

    Driving Cognitions Questionnaire (DCQ)

  • -

    Driving Behaviour Survey (DBS)
  • -

    Driving and Riding Avoidance Scale (DRAS)

  • -

    Driving Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ)

 The level of lapses and errors (by DBQ) as well as avoidance (by DRAS) were positively related to all anxiety variables