Table 5.

Literature on antiplasmodial/antimalarial activities and toxicity of extracts and isolated compounds of the plants identified in Tororo District, Eastern Uganda

Plant name	Part used	Solvent used	Antiplasmodial (IC50 μg/ml)/antimalarial (Plasmodium strain) activities	Active phytochemicals	Toxicity	References
Abrus precatorius L	Leaves	Methanol	85.59 (D6), > 100 (W2)	Abruquinone B isolated from the aerial parts; showed antiplasmodial activity (IC50 = 1.5 μg/ml)	Two main cytotoxic constituents of leaf extract were Stigmasterol hemihydrate and β-monolinolein (IC50 = 74.2 and 13.2 µg/ml), respectively, in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells and cytotoxic activities. Abruquinone B was cytotoxic towards KB & BC cell lines (IC50:13.0 ± 19.8 μg/ml)	[42–44]
Albizia coriaria Welw. ex Oliver	Stem bark	Methanol	15.2 (D6); 16.8 (W2)	Triterpenoids, lupeol, lupenone	Cytotoxic to the human glioblastoma cell line U87 CD4 CXCR4 (CC50 = 6.4 and 14.9 μg/ml for ethanol and DMSO extracts	[45, 46]
Azadirachta indica A. Juss	Leaves	Water, methanol	17.9 (D6); 43.7 (W2)	Terpenoids, isoprenoids, gedunin, limonoids: khayanthone, meldenin, nimbinin	Cytotoxicity LD50 of 101.26 and 61.43 µg/ml for water and methanol extracts	[47–51]
Bidens pilosa L	Leaves	Dichloromethane, water, methanol	8.5, 5, 11, 70 (D10)	No reports	Hydro and ethanol extracts are not toxic in mice (LD50 = 12.3 and 6.2 g/kg bw), respectively. Safe in humans	[52–54]
Carica papaya L	Leaves	Ethyl acetate	2.96 (D10), 3.98 (DD2), 0.2 uM (carpaine)	Carpaine	Carpaine has high selectivity (106) and is nontoxic to normal red blood cells and rat skeletal myoblast (L6) cells	[55–57]
Cissampelos mucronata A. Rich	Root bark, root	Methanol, ethyl acetate	8.8 (D6); 9.2 (W2). Root extract- < 3.91 (D6), 0.24 (W2) for curine	Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, curine	Slightly to moderately toxic LD50 = 288.53 mg/kg for the ethanol root extract and 8500 mg/kg for the methanol leaf extract	[45, 58–62]
Clerodendrum myricoides	Root bark	Ethanol chloroform	4.7 (D6); 8.3 (W2) > 10 (D6)	No reports	Cytotoxicity = IC50 > 20.0 μg/ml	[63, 64]
Harrisonia abyssinica Olive	Roots	Water, methanol	4.4 (D6), 10.25 (W2); 89.74, 79.50 (ENT 30); 86.56	Limonoids, steroids	Slightly to moderately toxic with LD50 of 234.71and 217.34 µg/ml for water and methanol extracts in mice	[50, 51, 60, 62]
Melia azedarach L	Leaves	Methanol, DCM	55.1 (3D7), 19.1 (W2); 28	No reports	No reports of leaf toxicity	[65, 66]
Momordica foetida Schumach	Shoot	Water	6.16 (NF54); 0.35 (FCR3)	Saponins, alkaloids, cardiac glycosides	No pronounced toxicity against human hepatocellular (HepG2) and human urinary bladder carcinoma (ECV-304, derivative of T-24) cells	[67–69]
Ocimum basilicum L	Leaves, whole plant	Ethanol	68.14 (3D7); 67.27 (INDO)	No reports	LD50 in rats was greater than 5000 mg/kg body weight. Not toxic, generally safe, LD50 = 100–5000 mg/kg body weight	[60, 62, 64, 70, 71]
Senna occidentalis L	Leaves	Dimethyl sulfoxide, ethanol	48.80 (3D7), 54.28 (NIDO); < 3	Quinones	Slightly to moderately toxic LD50 of leaf and stem extracts = 5 g/kg in mice	[60, 62, 64, 72–74]
Solanum incanum L	Leaves	Chloroform/methanol	31% parasite suppression	No report	No mortality and overt toxicity in mice at the limit dose of 2 g/kg: LD50 of both leaf and root hydromethanol extracts > 2 g/kg in mice	[75]
Tamarindus indica L	Stem bark	Water	25.1% parasite suppression at 10 mg/kg (P. berghei)	Saponins (leaves), tannins (fruits)	Not toxic	[76, 77]
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam	Root bark, fruits and leaves	Methanol, water, ethyl acetate, hexane	6.8 (D6); 13.9 (W2). Ethyl acetate fruit extract (1.80 mg/ml), root bark aqueous (2.43) (W2)	Furoquinolones (nitidine, 5,6-dihydronitidine), coumarins	Slightly to moderately toxic Acute and cytotoxicity of the extracts, with the exception of hexane extract from the roots showed LD50 > 1000 mg/kg and CC50 > 100 mg/ml, respectively	[45, 60, 62, 78]
Vernonia amygdalina Del	Leaves	Methanol/dichloromethane, ethanol	2.7 (K1), 9.83. In vivo parasite suppression of between 57.2–72.7% in combination with chloroquine	Vernolepin, vernolin, vernolide, vernodalin and hydroxy vernodalin, steroid glucosides	Petroleum ether extract shows strong cytotoxicity	[69, 79–83]
Warburgia ugandensis Sprague	Stem bark	Methanol, water, dichloromethane	6.4 (D6); 6.9 (W2), 12.9 (D6); 15.6 (W2) 69% parasite suppression	Coloratane sesquiterpenes, e.g., muzigadiolide	Cytotoxic to the human glioblastoma cell line U87 CD4 CXCR4 (CC50 = 7.2 and 2.0 μg/ml for ethanol and DMSO extracts	[45, 46, 79, 84–86]

Plasmodium falciparum isolates: Chloroquine sensitive strains are D6, 3D7, D10, FCR3, and NF54; Chloroquine resistant are Dd2, ENT30, FCR3, K1, NIDO, V1/S and W2