FIGURE 4.

The arrow‐of‐time identifies spatiotemporally localized causal effects in the motor task. (a) Measures of causal effects ($\tau$, top), activity (middle), and connectivity (bottom) during the motor task paradigm. The paradigm consists of movement epochs (left and right hands and feet, tongue), separated by resting blocks. (b) Detailed view of causal effects in left hemispheric brain regions showing the strongest AoT fluctuations in the interval highlighted in panel (a) (tongue movement). Positive values suggest that the region acts as a sink for causal effects, while negative values suggest that the region acts as a source of causal effects. (c) Visualization of the four brain regions in panel (b), together with a putative causal pathway recruited when the subjects start moving their tongue. The dashed line between VIS24 and PFC13 means that direct information flow between these two areas cannot be inferred from only the four analyzed regions, and likely involves intermediates.