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. 2023 Jun 12;13:9522. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-36002-w

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Population structure of P. falciparum isolates collected in Mali from 2007 to 2020. (A) Map of Mali presenting the number of newly diagnosed Plasmodium falciparum cases per 1,000 population in 2020 (colour scale) and indicating collection sites of the MalariaGEN studies (circle) and the New Drug Combinations for P. falciparum Transmission Reduction (NECTAR) clinical trials (triangle), coloured by village or city name. This map was generated using the tmap R package (version 3.3.3; https://r-tmap.github.io/tmap/) (B) P. falciparum incidence rate for each collection site (by colour) from 2000 to 2020. (C) Complexity of infections estimated by the in-breeding coefficient (F_ws metric) per sample, classified per study site, with the colour indicating collection year. Dotted grey trendline is at 0.95, dashed orange marks indicate mean F_ws value per group. (D, E) Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP) visualisation of 962 Malian P. falciparum isolates, coloured by site and collection year, respectively.