8. Overview of reviews: Neuromodulation.

Intervention and comparison	Contributing reviews	Relative effect	Number of participants (trials)	GRADE certainty of evidence	Comments
Neuromodulation
Implanted spinal neuromodulation
Standard, burst, 500 Hz and 1000 Hz SCS vs placebo	Duong 2018	Pain intensity   Significant between‐group differences (in favour of all SCS groups)	40 (1)	Very low	Downgraded once for inconsistency and twice for imprecision
SCS vs dorsal root ganglion stimulation	Duong 2018	Adverse events   No between‐group differences at long‐term	146 (1)	Very low	Downgraded once for serious study limitations, once for inconsistency, and once for imprecision
SCS + physiotherapy vs physiotherapy alone	Tran 2010	Pain intensity   VAS: mean (SD) 2.4 (2.5) vs 0.2 (1.4); P < 0.001) at medium‐term; significant between‐group differences at long‐term (both in favour of SCS)   Disability   No between‐group difference at medium‐term	52 (2)	Very low	Downgraded once for serious study limitations, once for inconsistency and twice for imprecision
Non‐invasive brain stimulation
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation vs placebo	Cossins 2013	Pain intensity   Significant between‐group differences post‐intervention (2 trials); no significant between‐group difference at medium‐term (1 trial)	NR (2)	Very low	Downgraded once for inconsistency and twice for imprecision

Unless specifically stated comparisons refer to outcomes measured at the end of the intervention period.

MD = mean difference
NR = not reported
SCS = spinal cord stimulation
VAS: visual analogue scale