Fig. 1.

TGF-β pathway in exosome signaling. Adipose-derived exosomes are shown to work via both ERK/MAPK and TGF-β/SMAD pathways. TGF-β induces phosphorylation of intracellular SMAD complexes, which translocate to the nucleus. These SMAD complexes regulate gene transcription/expression. TGF-β also promotes the MAPK/EPK/JNK pathway, which can selectively augment collagen degradation and ECM remodeling downstream. Both pathways promote cell proliferation, differentiation, or apoptosis involved in scar formation. SMAD indicates decapentaplegic; MAPKs, mitogen-activated protein kinases; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase.