Table 1.
Mean relative daily energy intake according to NOVA groups and subgroups across tertiles of the dietary share of ultra-processed food. Japanese population aged 30–59 years (n 617), Saitama Prefecture Health and Nutrition Survey 2011
| NOVA food group | Overall diet (n 617*) | Dietary share of ultra-processed foods† (tertile) | P value | Multiple comparison‡ | P for trend | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Absolute intake (kcal/d) | Relative intake (% total energy intake) | ①Low (n 181) |
②Middle (n 184) |
③High (n 186) |
|||||||||
| Mean | se | Mean | se | Mean | se | Mean | se | Mean | se | ||||
| Unprocessed or minimally processed foods | 692·5 | 14·7 | 44·9 | 0·8 | 61·8 | 1·0 | 46·9 | 1·0 | 25·8 | 1·0 | <0·001 | ① > ② ①, ② > ③ |
<0·001 |
| Rice | 351·9 | 10·6 | 22·4 | 0·6 | 32·5 | 1·0 | 23·3 | 1·0 | 11·8 | 1·0 | <0·001 | ① > ② ①, ② > ③ |
<0·001 |
| Meat (incl. poultry) | 81·3 | 3·8 | 5·2 | 0·2 | 6·9 | 0·4 | 5·7 | 0·4 | 3·1 | 0·4 | <0·001 | ①, ② > ③ | <0·001 |
| Vegetables (incl. unsalted vegetable juices)§ | 45·3 | 1·5 | 3·0 | 0·1 | 3·8 | 0·2 | 3·2 | 0·2 | 2·1 | 0·2 | <0·001 | ①, ② > ③ | <0·001 |
| Fish and seafood§ | 44·1 | 2·9 | 3·0 | 0·2 | 3·9 | 0·4 | 3·3 | 0·3 | 1·9 | 0·3 | <0·001 | ①, ② > ③ | 0·001 |
| Milk and plain yoghurt§ | 38·8 | 2·3 | 2·5 | 0·2 | 3·1 | 0·3 | 2·7 | 0·3 | 1·9 | 0·3 | 0·006 | ① > ③ | 0·002 |
| Egg | 36·0 | 1·7 | 2·3 | 0·1 | 2·9 | 0·2 | 2·6 | 0·2 | 1·4 | 0·2 | <0·001 | ①, ② > ③ | <0·001 |
| Other unprocessed or minimally processed foods§,║ | 34·4 | 2·3 | 2·4 | 0·2 | 3·4 | 0·3 | 2·1 | 0·3 | 1·5 | 0·3 | <0·001 | ① > ②, ③ | <0·001 |
| Fruits (incl. unsweetened fruit juices)§ | 30·7 | 1·8 | 2·1 | 0·1 | 2·6 | 0·2 | 2·0 | 0·2 | 1·6 | 0·2 | 0·012 | ① > ③ | 0·005 |
| Soyabean (e.g. nattou (fermented soybean))§ | 17·8 | 1·3 | 1·2 | 0·1 | 1·6 | 0·2 | 1·5 | 0·2 | 0·7 | 0·2 | <0·001 | ①, ② > ③ | <0·001 |
| Other grain§,¶ | 12·2 | 2·1 | 0·8 | 0·1 | 1·6 | 0·3 | 0·9 | 0·3 | 0·3 | 0·3 | <0·001 | ①, ② > ③ | <0·001 |
| Processed culinary ingredients | 85·9 | 3·0 | 5·5 | 0·2 | 7·5 | 0·3 | 6·2 | 0·3 | 3·0 | 0·3 | <0·001 | ① > ② ①, ② > ③ |
<0·001 |
| Plant oils and animal fats | 52·4 | 2·2 | 3·3 | 0·1 | 4·6 | 0·2 | 3·9 | 0·2 | 1·6 | 0·2 | <0·001 | ①, ② > ③ | <0·001 |
| Soya sauce and miso (Japanese special seasoning) | 16·6 | 0·6 | 1·1 | 0·0 | 1·4 | 0·1 | 1·2 | 0·1 | 0·7 | 0·1 | <0·001 | ①, ② > ③ | <0·001 |
| Sugar (including honey, maple syrup)§ | 11·8 | 0·7 | 0·8 | 0·0 | 0·9 | 0·1 | 0·9 | 0·1 | 0·5 | 0·1 | <0·001 | ①, ② > ③ | <0·001 |
| Other processed culinary ingredients§,** | 2·4 | 0·3 | 0·2 | 0·0 | 0·3 | 0·0 | 0·2 | 0·0 | 0·1 | 0·0 | <0·001 | ①, ② > ③ | <0·001 |
| Processed foods†† | 171·1 | 6·3 | 11·3 | 0·4 | 15·9 | 0·8 | 10·6 | 0·8 | 8·1 | 0·8 | <0·001 | ① > ②, ③ | <0·001 |
| Grains§ | 95·1 | 5·4 | 6·3 | 0·4 | 9·0 | 0·7 | 6·0 | 0·7 | 4·3 | 0·7 | 0·001 | ①, ② > ③ | <0·001 |
| Cured/salted soyabean§ | 29·7 | 1·9 | 2·0 | 0·1 | 2·6 | 0·2 | 1·9 | 0·2 | 1·6 | 0·2 | 0·050 | 0·026 | |
| Cured/salted fish§ | 20·7 | 1·8 | 1·4 | 0·1 | 2·2 | 0·2 | 1·2 | 0·2 | 1·1 | 0·2 | 0·003 | ① > ②, ③ | 0·002 |
| Cured/salted meat§ | 12·5 | 1·1 | 0·8 | 0·1 | 1·2 | 0·1 | 0·8 | 0·1 | 0·6 | 0·1 | 0·022 | ① > ③ | 0·006 |
| Cheese§ | 8·2 | 0·9 | 0·5 | 0·1 | 0·7 | 0·1 | 0·6 | 0·1 | 0·4 | 0·1 | 0·248 | 0·370 | |
| Preserved vegetables§ | 2·7 | 0·3 | 0·2 | 0·0 | 0·3 | 0·0 | 0·2 | 0·0 | 0·2 | 0·0 | 0·437 | 0·359 | |
| Other processed foods§ | 1·9 | 0·4 | 0·1 | 0·0 | 0·2 | 0·1 | 0·2 | 0·1 | 0·1 | 0·1 | 0·149 | 0·052 | |
| Preserved fruits§ | 0·4 | 0·1 | 0·0 | 0·0 | 0·1 | 0·0 | 0·1 | 0·0 | 0·1 | 0·0 | 0·442 | 0·317 | |
| Ultra-processed foods‡‡ | 589·7 | 15·0 | 38·2 | 0·9 | 14·8 | 0·7 | 36·3 | 0·7 | 63·2 | 0·7 | <0·001 | ① < ② ①, ② < ③ |
<0·001 |
| Grain dishes | 170·5 | 10·2 | 10·8 | 0·6 | 1·1 | 1·0 | 8·9 | 1·0 | 21·4 | 1·0 | <0·001 | ① < ② ①, ② < ③ |
<0·001 |
| Sweets, fatty or salty snacks§ | 116·7 | 6·9 | 7·7 | 0·5 | 3·2 | 0·8 | 7·7 | 0·8 | 13·0 | 0·8 | <0·001 | ① < ② ①, ② < ③ |
<0·001 |
| Seasoning | 116·1 | 4·5 | 7·7 | 0·3 | 5·6 | 0·5 | 9·0 | 0·5 | 8·6 | 0·5 | <0·001 | ① < ②, ③ | <0·001 |
| Meat, fish, egg and soyabean dishes§ | 72·4 | 4·5 | 4·6 | 0·3 | 2·6 | 0·5 | 5·1 | 0·5 | 6·1 | 0·5 | <0·001 | ① < ②, ③ | <0·001 |
| Bentou § | 53·2 | 6·7 | 3·3 | 0·4 | 0·1 | 0·7 | 1·7 | 0·7 | 8·1 | 0·7 | <0·001 | ①, ② < ③ | <0·001 |
| Drink§ | 27·5 | 2·3 | 1·9 | 0·2 | 1·0 | 0·4 | 2·1 | 0·4 | 2·9 | 0·4 | <0·001 | ① < ②, ③ | <0·001 |
| Vegetable dishes§ | 16·5 | 1·8 | 1·2 | 0·1 | 0·7 | 0·2 | 1·2 | 0·2 | 1·6 | 0·2 | 0·051 | 0·021 | |
| Dairy products§ | 11·1 | 1·1 | 0·8 | 0·1 | 0·8 | 0·1 | 0·8 | 0·1 | 1·2 | 0·1 | 0·034 | 0·022 | |
| Soup§ | 7·1 | 0·9 | 0·5 | 0·1 | 0·5 | 0·1 | 0·4 | 0·1 | 0·9 | 0·1 | 0·005 | ①, ② < ③ | 0·005 |
| Total | 1539·2 | 19·9 | 100·0 | 100·0 | 100·0 | 100·0 | |||||||
| Alcohol§ | 43·0 | 6·5 | 1·9 | 0·2 | 2·5 | 0·5 | 1·7 | 0·5 | 1·9 | 0·5 | <0·001 | ① > ②, ③ | <0·001 |
| Eating out (e.g. restaurant) | 276·0 | 16·1 | 14·1 | 0·8 | 16·6 | 1·4 | 13·4 | 1·4 | 13·4 | 1·4 | 0·169 | 0·107 | |
To convert to kJ, multiply kcal value by 4·184.
ANCOVA. Values are adjusted means with their se. Models adjusted for age, sex, family structure and income.
Overall diet was calculated including sixty-six participants having missing values on income and/or family structure.
Percentage of total energy intake from ultra-processed foods. Mean: low = 15·0 %; middle = 36·2 %; high = 63·6 %.
Multiple comparison was used with Bonferroni correction. ‘>’ and ‘<’ show intake size.
These data did not follow a normal distribution, so were log-transformed. The values in the table indicate the values before the log transformation.
Potato, mushroom, seeds, tea and coffee.
Flour, pasta and macaroni.
Vinegar, sweet sake (mirin) used as seasoning.
Grains: e.g. salted, boiled wheat noodles (e.g. steamed udon wheat noodles), bread (e.g. slice of bread). Cured/salted soyabean: e.g. tofu. Cured/salted fish: e.g. cake of fish paste. Cured/salted meat: e.g. ham, bacon. Preserved vegetables: e.g. pickles. Other processed foods: dried and salted seaweed, salted butter. Preserved fruits: e.g. salted plums.
Grain dishes: e.g. rice ball, sushi, soba noodles. Sweets, fatty or salty snacks: e.g. sweet red bean ban, rice cracker. Seasoning: margarine, instant basic stock, ready-to-eat-sauces (e.g. mabo-tofu sauce, dried seasoning powder). Meat, fish, egg and soyabean dishes: e.g. grilled chicken skewers, deep-fried horse mackerel, steamed savoury cup custard. Bentou: one plate meal. Drink: e.g. salted or sugared vegetable or fruit juice, soft drink. Vegetable dishes: e.g. spinach with sesame dressing. Milk and dairy products: e.g. sugared or sweetened milk drinks, fruit yoghurts. Soup: e.g. instant miso soup.