Table 4.
Association of meal and restaurant characteristics with percentage of energy from fat and salt content of meals offered to children (kids’ meals) at chain restaurants in Japan, October–November 2017
| Percentage of energy from fat (n kids’ meals 391) | Salt content (n kids’ meals 416) | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model 0 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 0 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |||||||||
| β | 95 % Cl | β | 95 % Cl | β | 95 % Cl | β | 95 % Cl | β | 95 % Cl | β | 95 % Cl | β | 95 % Cl | β | 95 % Cl | |
| Kids’ meal-level fixed effects | ||||||||||||||||
| Intercept | 34·3 | 30·9, 37·8* | 18·4 | 12·0, 24·9* | 15·7 | 8·9, 22·6* | 15·7 | 8·3, 23·1* | 2·6 | 2·2, 3·0* | −0·2 | −0·9, 0·5 | −0·2 | −0·9, 0·6 | −0·1 | −1·0, 0·7 |
| Price ($US) | 3·5 | 2·3, 4·8* | 2·6 | 1·3, 3·8* | 2·4 | 1·2, 3·7* | 0·2 | 0·1, 0·3* | 0·2 | 0·1, 0·4* | 0·2 | 0·1, 0·4* | ||||
| Energy (kJ) | 0·0008 | 0·0006, 0·001* | 0·001 | 0·0008, 0·0013* | 0·001 | 0·0008, 0·0012* | ||||||||||
| Main dish | ||||||||||||||||
| Burger/sandwich | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||||||||
| Noodle with soup | −3·2 | −7·8, 1·5 | −2·4 | −6·7, 2·0 | −0·1 | −4·6, 4·4 | 2·3 | 1·9, 2·8* | 2·5 | 2·0, 3·0* | 2·4 | 1·9, 2·9* | ||||
| Curry rice | −7·8 | −11·9, −3·7* | −6·5 | −10·3, −2·7* | −5·0 | −8·9, −1·0* | −0·03 | −0·4, 0·4 | 0·07 | −0·3, 0·5 | −0·02 | −0·4, 0·4 | ||||
| Rice-based | −3·7 | −9·3, 1·8 | −3·1 | −8·3, 2·0 | −0·6 | −5·9, 4·7 | −0·1 | −0·7, 0·4 | −0·1 | −0·6, 0·4 | −0·2 | −0·8, 0·4 | ||||
| Fish-based | −6·8 | −11·9, −1·6* | −6·0 | −10·7, −1·3* | −4·2 | −9·1, 0·7† | 0·4 | −0·06, 1·0† | 0·6 | 0·06, 1·1* | 0·5 | −0·07, 1·0† | ||||
| Meat-based | 6·2 | 3·6, 8·8* | 10·6 | 7·9, 13·3* | 7·1 | 4·7, 9·6* | −0·4 | −0·7, −0·1* | −0·3 | −0·6, −0·1* | −0·4 | −0·6, −0·1* | ||||
| Pasta-based | 1·9 | −4·1, 7·6 | 5·0 | −0·6, 10·7† | 6·2 | 0·5, 11·9* | 0·2 | −0·4, 0·9 | 0·2 | −0·4, 0·9 | 0·3 | −0·4, 0·9 | ||||
| Pancake | −4·8 | −8·0, −1·5* | −3·6 | −6·6, −0·6* | −3·2 | −6·2, −0·2* | −0·8 | −1·1, −0·5* | −0·7 | −1·1, −0·4* | −0·7 | −1·1, −0·4* | ||||
| Side dish (reference: no)‡ | ||||||||||||||||
| Vegetables, yes | 0·7 | −1·4, 2·9 | 1·0 | −1·3, 3·2 | −0·2 | −0·4 0·07 | −0·2 | −0·4 0·06 | ||||||||
| Fries, yes | 8·7 | 6·5, 10·9* | 8·8 | 6·6, 11·0* | −0·5 | −0·8, −0·2* | −0·5 | −0·8, −0·2* | ||||||||
| Incentive (reference: no)§ | ||||||||||||||||
| Sugar-sweetened beverage, yes | −1·1 | −5·0, 2·7 | −0·7 | −5·1, 3·7 | 0·05 | −0·4, 0·5 | −0·1 | −0·5, 0·4 | ||||||||
| Dessert, yes | −1·9 | −5·3, 1·5 | −1·0 | −4·5, 2·5 | −0·2 | −0·6, 0·1 | −0·2 | −0·6, 0·1 | ||||||||
| Toy, yes | 4·6 | 0·3, 8·9* | 3·9 | −0·8, 8·6 | −0·2 | −0·7, 0·4 | −0·1 | −0·7, 0·4 | ||||||||
| Restaurant-level fixed effects | ||||||||||||||||
| Restaurant type | ||||||||||||||||
| Table service | Reference | Reference | ||||||||||||||
| Fast food/quick service | 3·2 | −2·7, 9·1 | −0·3 | −1·1, 0·5 | ||||||||||||
| Restaurant style | ||||||||||||||||
| Western | Reference | Reference | ||||||||||||||
| Japanese | −6·2 | −11·0, −1·4* | 0·7 | 0·06, 1·3* | ||||||||||||
| Mixed | −0·8 | −6·8, 5·1 | −0·1 | −0·9, 0·6 | ||||||||||||
| Random effects | ||||||||||||||||
| Company-level variance | 22·8† | 6·7 | 7·0 | 10·8 | 0·0 | 0·1 | 0·1 | 0·3 | ||||||||
| Restaurant-level variance | 21·7* | 12·7† | 16·6* | 8·0 | 1·3* | 0·4* | 0·4* | 0·3† | ||||||||
| Kids’ meal-level variance | 93·7* | 58·2* | 47·8* | 47·9* | 1·0* | 0·6* | 0·6* | 0·6* | ||||||||
| Percentage reduction of the restaurant-level variance (%)║ | – | 41 | 24 | 63 | – | 69 | 69 | 77 | ||||||||
Kids’ meals from forty-two chain restaurant brands from across twenty food-service companies were assessed.
*
Statistically significant based on 95 % CI (P<0·05).
†
Marginal association based on 95 % CI (P<0·10).
‡
Kids’ meals offered with a side dish, including vegetables or fries.
§
Kids’ meals offered with a sugar-sweetened beverage, dessert or toy incentive.
║
Percentage reduction of the restaurant-level variance from Model 0.