. 2017 Nov 21;21(2):416–425. doi: 10.1017/S1368980017002944

Table 1.

Characterization of studies regarding the impact of participation in urban gardens on food-related outcomes in the context of health promotion and food security, and key results

Data on publication (authors, year of publication and journal)	Setting	Objective	Design	Participants	Outcomes investigated	Outcome measurement method	Food-related outcomes in the context of health promotion and food security	Quality rating
Weltin and Lavin⁽ ²⁸ ⁾ 2012 Journal of Community Health Nursing	Dubuque, IA, USA	To explore the relationship between CG participation and HgA1c levels, physical activity and healthy food sources among diabetics	Pre- and post-intervention study with no control group	13 adult diabetic patients from a health centre	Quantitative outcomes: BMI, HgA1c, lipids and blood pressure. Qualitative outcomes: cultural norms and beliefs. Barriers to dietary care and perception	Quantitative: collection of weight, height, blood and arterial pressure. Qualitative: observation and field notes during weekly activities with participants	Increased access to healthy foods; greater interest in recipes and methods of preparing foods grown; significant reduction in HgA1c levels	Strong
Blair et al.⁽ ²⁹ ⁾ 2013 Acta Oncologica	Birmingham, AL, USA	To explore the effects of a domestic gardening training intervention on F&V, physical activity, quality of life and physical function	Pre- and post-intervention study with no control group	12 cancer survivors (8 adults and 4 children) and 4 adult guardians of the children	BMI, F&V intake, quality of life, perception of effects of the intervention on diet, physical activity, medical conditions, physical functions, sun exposure, intention to tend another garden	Questionnaires, physical function test, measurement of weight, height, biomarkers, structured interview with open questions	Increased F&V intake; overall increase in serum carotenoid concentration; greater motivation to follow a healthier diet generally and consume more vegetables specifically; impact on family diet; greater interest in a healthy diet for life cycle	Strong
Giraldo et al.⁽ ³⁰ ⁾ 2012 Avances en Enfermería	Tunja, Colombia	To design, implement and assess an intervention strategy	Pre- and post-intervention study with no control group	13 education agents and 6 adult family users of the social programme	Meanings, benefits, errors, recommendations and mechanisms of continuing the intervention	NR	Increased availability of garden produce; participants became knowledge multipliers within their families and communities; assimilation of knowledge on adequate and healthy food and principles of urban agriculture	Weak
Hale et al.⁽ ³¹ ⁾ 2011 Social Science & Medicine	Denver, CO, USA	To understand the aesthetic experience of CG as a means to facilitate ecological learning, the affirmation and expression of aesthetic, cultural and individual values, and the impact of these processes on health	Observational, cross-sectional study	67 adult participants in urban gardens	Meaning and history of CG, social aspects of CG participation, relationship in CG, reasons for CG participation, experience in CG, whether participants introduced others to CG, perceptions of meaning of CG for participants and non-participants, and perceptions regarding benefits of CG	Interviews and focus groups	Foods grown were shared with individuals and charities; garden-grown foods were ‘better’, more flavoursome, fresher and more desirable; valuing of organic production; greater amount and variety of vegetables consumed; connection with cultural roots; establishment of relationship with foods that served to support healthy eating behaviours	Strong
Scott et al.⁽ ³² ⁾ 2014 Ageing and Society	St Lucia, QLD, Australia	To identify the reasons for practising gardening and the resultant benefits of the activity	Observational, cross-sectional study	331 older adults who had DG	Main reason for practising gardening, benefits of the practice, adaptation of gardening activities with ageing, main activities performed in the garden	Completion of questionnaires online or by email	Production of fresh, pesticide-free F&V for own consumption and sharing with friends and family; reduced food costs	Strong
Spees et al.⁽ ³³ ⁾ 2015 American Journal of Health Behavior	Central Ohio, USA	Define perception of health behaviour changes in cancer survivors participating in an urban gardening programme	Observational, cross-sectional study	28 adult cancer survivors	Perception regarding health and behaviour changes	Focus groups	Greater consumption of fresh foods; exposure to foods not previously tried; greater interest in cooking; greater planning of healthy meals; reduced consumption of red meat and ultra-processed foods; greater opportunity to consume a diet based on vegetables	Strong
Wakefield et al.⁽ ³⁴ ⁾ 2007 Health Promotion International	Toronto, ON, Canada	To identify impacts on health of participation in CG	Observational, cross-sectional study	68-eight CG participants (ages NR)	Reasons for participating in CG, benefits of CG, gardening queries, food and health, ways of bringing together organizations, researchers and socially vulnerable individuals	Participant observation, focus groups, in-depth interviews, field notes	Better access to fresh and healthy foods; improvement in nutrition; savings on food costs; consumption of culturally appropriate foods; improved nutrition of children and family; greater consumption of vegetables; growing of organic foods; food sharing; knowledge on F&V and recipes	Moderate
Alaimo et al.⁽ ³⁵ ⁾ 2008 Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior	Flint, MI, USA	To examine association between participation of members of the household in gardens and F&V consumption	Observational, cross-sectional study	766 individuals aged >18 years living in urban areas	Frequency of consumption of fruit juice, other fruit, green salads, potatoes (not fried), green juice, yellow or orangish vegetables, beans and other vegetables	Interviews by telephone using questionnaire	Significantly greater consumption of F&V in exposure group	Moderate
Wills et al.⁽ ³⁶ ⁾ 2010 Health Promotion International	Johannesburg, South Africa	To explore the potential of an urban garden for improving food security to build assessment indicators of the project	Observational, cross-sectional study	19 adult participants including NGO, universities, gardening and students	Involvement in CG, creation of CG, impact, difference made by CG for them personally and for the organization they belonged to	Running of workshop	Greater access to vegetables, harvest sharing, feeling of making a difference to people’s health by giving away healthy foods	Moderate
Litt et al.⁽ ³⁷ ⁾ 2011 American Journal of Public Health	Denver, CO, USA	To analyse the relationship between F&V intake, participation in gardens and processes related to living in the neighbourhood	Observational, cross-sectional study	436 adult individuals living close to CG	F&V intake, participation in gardens, physical activity, self-rated health, BMI, psychological and social processes related to living in the neighbourhood	Questionnaire	Greater F&V consumption among CG participants	Moderate
Freeman et al.⁽ ³⁸ ⁾ 2012 Journal of Environmental Psychology	Dunedin, New Zealand	To better understand the relationship of individuals with their gardens	Observational, cohort study	55 adults with domestic gardens	Importance of the garden, its use, activities, and presence of native species, birds and animals	Questionnaires and photographic records	Use of garden area for meals; vegetable growing associated with connection to the Earth, financial necessity, importance of consuming pesticide-free foods; environmental, social and political commitment, and strengthening ties with neighbours through sharing foods grown	Moderate
McMahan et al.⁽ ³⁹ ⁾ 2014 Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition	Iowa State, USA	To assess perceptions, attitudes and behaviour in relation to gardening and food security	Observational, cross-sectional study	855 adult dwellers of urban and rural areas	Perception of gardening-related issues: F&V intake, F&V sharing, serving meals made with F&V to others, buying foods at producers’ markets, consuming home-grown foods, planting F&V, growing own food	Questionnaire	Experience with gardening was significantly associated with positive perceptions of F&V and growing foods	Weak

CG, community garden; HgA1c, glycated Hb; F&V, fruit and vegetable; DG, domestic garden; NR, not reported; NGO, non-governmental organization.