Table 2.
Baseline characteristics before and after PS overlap weighting in individuals with T2D (n = 45,618)
| T2D | Unweighted | Overlap weighted | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nonusers (n = 29,912) | CGM users (n = 15,706) | SMD | Nonusers (n = 29,912) | CGM users (n = 15,706) | SMD | |
| Index year, % | 1.421 | <0.001 | ||||
| 2015 | 17.0 | 0.7 | 2.1 | 2.1 | ||
| 2016 | 16.9 | 1.2 | 2.9 | 2.9 | ||
| 2017 | 16.8 | 2.0 | 4.5 | 4.5 | ||
| 2018 | 16.7 | 9.8 | 14.1 | 14.1 | ||
| 2019 | 16.6 | 34.4 | 32.4 | 32.4 | ||
| 2020 | 16.0 | 51.8 | 44.0 | 44.0 | ||
| Mean (SD) age at index, years | 68.3 (9.5) | 66.7 (9.8) | 0.167 | 67.7 (9.7) | 67.7 (9.6) | <0.001 |
| Male sex, % | 96.3 | 94.0 | 0.106 | 95.0 | 95.0 | <0.001 |
| Mean (SD) BMI, kg/m2 | 33.0 (6.6) | 32.7 (6.8) | 0.048 | 33.0 (6.7) | 33.0 (6.8) | <0.001 |
| Ethnicity, % | 0.125 | <0.001 | ||||
| White, non-Hispanic | 69.9 | 75.0 | 73.2 | 73.2 | ||
| African American | 20.6 | 17.4 | 18.5 | 18.5 | ||
| White, Hispanic | 6.8 | 4.8 | 5.4 | 5.4 | ||
| Other | 2.8 | 2.8 | 3.0 | 3.0 | ||
| U.S. region, % | 0.277 | <0.001 | ||||
| South | 44.6 | 39.2 | 40.3 | 40.3 | ||
| Midwest | 23.8 | 22.5 | 24.3 | 24.3 | ||
| West | 19.9 | 16.6 | 18.8 | 18.8 | ||
| Northeast | 11.7 | 21.8 | 16.6 | 16.6 | ||
| Endocrinologist visit, % | 19.4 | 67.8 | 1.119 | 43.8 | 43.8 | <0.001 |
| Median (IQR) total PCP and endocrine visits | 4 (2, 6) | 6 (4, 9) | 0.499 | 5 (3, 8) | 5 (3, 8) | <0.001 |
| Mean (SD) LDL cholesterol, mg/dL | 81 (34) | 80 (35) | 0.045 | 80 (34) | 80 (34) | <0.001 |
| Mean (SD) HDL cholesterol, mg/dL | 40 (11) | 41 (13) | 0.161 | 41 (12) | 41 (12) | <0.001 |
| Mean (SD) total cholesterol, mg/dL | 152 (42) | 154 (44) | 0.025 | 152 (44) | 152 (43) | <0.001 |
| Median (IQR) triglycerides, mg/dL | 145 (100, 218) | 145 (97, 225) | 0.048 | 146 (100, 222) | 145 (97, 222) | <0.001 |
| Mean (SD) SBP, mmHg | 135 (14) | 134 (13) | 0.059 | 135 (14) | 134 (13) | 0.019 |
| Mean (SD) DBP, mmHg | 74 (8) | 74 (8) | 0.040 | 74 (8) | 74 (8) | 0.052 |
| Median (IQR) creatinine, mg/dL | 1.1 (0.9, 1.4) | 1.2 (0.9, 1.5) | 0.097 | 1.2 (0.9, 1.5) | 1.2 (0.9, 1.5) | <0.001 |
| Mean (SD) eGFR, mL/min/1.73 m2 | 68 (24) | 66 (25) | 0.106 | 66 (25) | 66 (25) | <0.001 |
| Mean (SD) HbA1c, % | 8.1 (1.6) | 8.7 (1.7) | 0.366 | 8.5 (1.7) | 8.5 (1.6) | 0.008 |
| Mean (SD) HbA1c, mmol/mol | 65 (17.5) | 72 (18.6) | 0.366 | 69 (18.6) | 69 (17.5) | 0.008 |
| Any insulin use, % | 100 | 100 | <0.001 | 100 | 100 | <0.001 |
| Dual basal and bolus use | 56.7 | 87.4 | 0.730 | 79.2 | 78.4 | 0.021 |
| Basal use only | 41.0 | 6.6 | 0.884 | 16.4 | 15.8 | 0.017 |
| NPH insulin | 12.9 | 4.9 | 0.284 | 6.0 | 6.0 | <0.001 |
| Long/basal insulin | 76.9 | 89.7 | 0.348 | 87.0 | 87.0 | <0.001 |
| Mixed insulin | 11.7 | 6.0 | 0.203 | 7.2 | 7.2 | <0.001 |
| Short/rapid insulin | 48.9 | 91.1 | 1.039 | 79.3 | 79.3 | <0.001 |
| Glucagon, % | 1.1 | 10.9 | 0.419 | 3.8 | 3.8 | <0.001 |
| Statin use, % | 81.1 | 83.6 | 0.067 | 83.0 | 83.0 | <0.001 |
| Antihypertensive medication use, % | 86.8 | 86.0 | 0.023 | 86.1 | 86.1 | <0.001 |
| Hypoglycemic risk score | 0.153 | <0.001 | ||||
| Low | 71.3 | 65.7 | 69.4 | 69.4 | ||
| Intermediate | 24.9 | 27.6 | 25.6 | 25.6 | ||
| High | 3.8 | 6.7 | 5.0 | 5.0 | ||
| Noninsulin diabetes medication, % | 67.4 | 67.7 | 0.006 | 67.8 | 67.1 | 0.016 |
| Metformin | 54.6 | 48.8 | 0.118 | 51.3 | 51.3 | <0.001 |
| Sulfyonureas | 27.0 | 12.1 | 0.384 | 16.1 | 16.1 | <0.001 |
| DPP-4 inhibitor | 7.5 | 11.9 | 0.148 | 11.5 | 11.5 | <0.001 |
| SGLT-2 inhibitor | 4.2 | 18.2 | 0.455 | 13.3 | 13.3 | <0.001 |
| Thiazolidinediones | 2.8 | 4.8 | 0.107 | 4.1 | 4.1 | <0.001 |
| GLP-1 agonists | 6.5 | 22.8 | 0.474 | 17.7 | 17.7 | <0.001 |
| α-Glucosidase inhibitors | 1.2 | 0.6 | 0.064 | 0.8 | 0.8 | <0.001 |
| Glinides | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.005 | 0.2 | 0.2 | <0.001 |
| Amylin | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.017 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.030 |
| Private insurance, % | 33.4 | 38.1 | 0.100 | 36.7 | 36.7 | <0.001 |
| Medicare, % | 71.7 | 69.9 | 0.39 | 71.5 | 71.5 | <0.001 |
| Medicaid, % | 1.5 | 1.7 | 0.018 | 1.6 | 1.6 | <0.001 |
| Extended care, % | 8.6 | 12.5 | 0.128 | 11.2 | 11.2 | <0.001 |
| Housing insecurity, % | 3.3 | 2.7 | 0.034 | 2.8 | 2.8 | <0.001 |
| Hospice care, % | 1.0 | 1.4 | 0.038 | 1.3 | 1.3 | <0.001 |
| ER visits, % | 0.183 | <0.001 | ||||
| 0 | 75.7 | 67.9 | 71.9 | 71.9 | ||
| 1 | 13.1 | 15.6 | 14.2 | 14.2 | ||
| ≥2 | 11.2 | 16.5 | 13.9 | 13.9 | ||
| Elixhauser comorbidity score, % | 0.241 | 0.027 | ||||
| 0 | 2.7 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 2.4 | ||
| 1 | 18.1 | 12.6 | 14.6 | 14.3 | ||
| 2 | 26.3 | 20.6 | 23.4 | 22.4 | ||
| ≥3 | 52.9 | 64.5 | 59.8 | 60.9 | ||
| DCSI weighted score, % | 0.306 | 0.028 | ||||
| 0 | 20.2 | 11.9 | 15.7 | 15.4 | ||
| 1 | 22.4 | 19.0 | 20.4 | 21.0 | ||
| 2 | 20.3 | 18.5 | 20.2 | 19.3 | ||
| ≥3 | 37.1 | 50.6 | 43.7 | 44.3 | <0.001 | |
| Hypoglycemia event, % | 1.3 | 3.1 | 0.121 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 0.003 |
| Hypoglycemia event or glucose <54 mg/dL, % | 3.6 | 7.2 | 0.163 | 5.1 | 5.1 | 0.004 |
| Hyperglycemia event, % | 5.2 | 9.9 | 0.179 | 7.8 | 7.8 | 0.006 |
| Hospitalization, % | 15.9 | 19.0 | 0.081 | 17.0 | 17.0 | 0.006 |
The baseline period is the period before the index date. A covariate with SMD <0.1 is considered balanced between groups. Hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia identified by ICD-9/10 diagnostic codes from inpatient or ER settings. Hypoglycemia or glucose <54 mg/dL includes diagnoses or outpatient glucose laboratory values <54 mg/dL. Hospitalizations were identified by inpatient admissions. Extended care includes long-term inpatient stays, nursing home consults, or skilled home care consults. The baseline period for events and values is standardized for all participants to 1 year before the index date, except for HbA1c values that are within 6 months before the index date and Elixhauser comorbidity and DCSI weighted scores that are within 24 months before the index date.
DBP, diastolic blood pressure; DCSI, Diabetes Complications Severity Index; DPP-4, dipeptidyl peptidase 4; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide 1; IQR, interquartile range; NPH, neutral protamine hagedorn; PCP, primary care provider; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SGLT-2, sodium–glucose cotransporter 2.