Table 2.
Food item replacement for the development of environmentally sustainable diets based on current diet
| Health considerations | Environmental considerations | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Reference | Country | Dietary data | Replacement diets | Replacement compensated by means of | Health evaluation of whole diet based on | Food aggregation level* | Environmental indicator |
| Eshel et al. (2006)( 12 ) | USA | Population level Per capita daily food disappearance data (FAOSTAT 2005) | Lacto-ovo-vegetarian Omnivore with fish Omnivore with red meat Omnivore with poultry | Total energy intake; meat kJ replaced by kJ from dairy and eggs in the lacto-ovo-vegetarian, and by kJ from the sole source given by the diet name | / | 7 items | Energy efficiency GHGE |
| Baroni et al. (2007)( 13 ) | Italy | Population level (Eurostat 2000, Euromeat 2001, FAO 2001) | Omnivorous diet Vegetarian diet Vegan diet | Total energy intake; meat and dairy (and eggs) kJ replaced by unspecified plant-based food items | Total energy Macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, fat) Dietary fibre | 18 items | Eco-indicator 99 W (including damages to human health, ecosystems quality and resources) |
| Collins and Fairchild (2007)( 28 ) | Wales | Household level (Household and Expenditure Survey of Food and Drink 2001) | Organic diet Footprint diets Vegetarian diet | Total energy intake; inorganic food items, food items with an ecological footprint ≥0·006 gha/kg, ≥0·004 gha/kg or ≥0·002 gha/kg, and meat products respectively replaced by organic and low-impact alternatives, and dairy and eggs | Total energy Macronutrients Micronutrients | 12 categories | Total ecological footprint (demand from nature) |
| Stehfest et al. (2009)( 14 ) | 24 world regions | Population level Per country agricultural production data (FAOSTAT 2006) | No ruminant meat No meat No animal products Less meat | Protein intake; animal proteins from ruminant meat, white meat, milk and eggs respectively replaced by plant proteins from pulses and soyabeans | / | 7 crop groups and 5 animal categories | Livestock production Land use Crop production Radiative forcing |
| Berners-Lee et al. (2012)( 33 ) | UK | Individual level 4 d diet record (UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey 2010, scaled to per capita supply intake FAO data) | 3 vegetarian 3 vegan | Total energy intake; meat (and dairy) kJ replaced by kJ from dairy or plant-based meat substitutes‡ | Macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, fat) Added sugar Na | 61 groups | GHGE |
| Vieux et al. (2012)( 35 ) | France | Individual level 7 d diet record (Individual National Survey and Food Consumption, 2006–2007) | Less meat intake 20 % less Max. 50 g/d | Total energy intake; meat kJ replaced by kJ from fruit and vegetables, milk and dairy, or mixed dishes | Total diet weight Total energy intake Energy density | 73 items | GHGE |
| Hoolohan et al. (2013)( 34 ) | UK | Individual level 4 d diet record (UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey 2010, scaled to per capita supply intake FAO data) | Decrease meat Eliminate meat Eliminate ruminant | Total energy intake; meat kJ replaced by kJ from plant-based meat substitutes‡ or by lower carbon-intensive meat products (i.e. pork and poultry) | Macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, fat) Added sugar Na | 61 groups | GHGE |
| Temme et al. (2013)( 50 ) | Netherlands | Individual level 2×24 h recalls (Dutch National Food Consumption Survey 2003) | Less meat and dairy intake 30 % less 100 % less | Diet weight; dairy and meat consumption replaced by the same amount of plant-based dairy or meat-replacing foods§ | SFA Total Fe | / | Land use |
| Werner et al. (2014)( 36 ) | Denmark | Individual level 7 d diet record (Danish National Dietary Survey 1995–2006) | 6 omnivorous† 1 vegetarian 1 vegan | Total energy intake; dairy (and meat and fish) kJ replaced by kJ from marmalade, soya drinks and/or beans | Macronutrients|| Micronutrients | 71 items | GHGE |
| Westhoek et al. (2014)( 15 ) | EU27 | Population level Per capita food supply data (FAOSTAT 2010) | 25 and 50 % less livestock Beef and dairy Pig, poultry and eggs All meat, dairy and eggs | Total energy intake; kJ from meat, dairy and eggs replaced by cereals (and pulses if protein intake lower than recommended level) | Protein Saturated fat | 12 commodity groups | Feed demand Land use Reactive nitrogen emissions GHGE |
GHGE, greenhouse gas emissions.
Food aggregation level: the number of food items or groups (depending on author’s terminology) for which environmental sustainability data of food intake was available.
The theoretical diets were based on the current diet adjusted for the Danish Dietary Guidelines: six omnivorous diets with various quantities for dairy; one vegetarian diet with no cheese and meat products; and one vegan diet with no milk products, meat products and fish.
Preferably plant-based meat substitutes that might reasonably be considered to be healthy alternatives, i.e. pasta, rice, pulses, cereals, breads, salads, vegetables, fruits, nuts and seeds.
Replacement with plant-based products that have a similar use to the reference food and therefore assumed to be consumed in similar amounts: liquid dairy foods were replaced by similar soya-based foods; meat products and cheese used as sandwich filling by a variety of other sandwich fillings/toppings; meat products in hot meals by a variety of meat replacers (e.g. vegetarian meat substitutes, egg dishes, pulses or tofu/tempeh); and soft cheese used as snack by popcorn.
The nutritional composition of each alternative diet was evaluated against the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2004 for macronutrients (protein, carbohydrate, added sugar, fat, saturated fat, mono- and polyunsaturated fat, and alcohol) and micronutrients (including dietary fibre, vitamins A, D, E, C, B12, B6, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and folate, and minerals Mg, Fe, Zn, P, Ca, iodine and Se).