Table 2.
Nutrient and food intake by household income level: average of 4 d both with and without school lunch among 5th grade children (10–11 years old) at nineteen schools in four prefectures, Japan, September–December 2013
| Low income (n 319) | Middle income (n 194) | High income (n 323) | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Difference from low income | Difference from low income | |||||||||||
| Energy/nutrient/food group | Mean* | sd * | Mean* | sd * | Mean† | 95 % CI† | Mean* | sd * | Mean† | 95 % CI† | P value‡ | P for trend§ |
| Energy and nutrients | ||||||||||||
| Energy (kJ) | 7962 | 1331 | 8096 | 1251 | 42 | –192, 280 | 8263 | 1351 | 176 | –42, 389 | 0·25 | 0·10 |
| Energy (kcal) | 1903 | 318 | 1935 | 299 | 10 | −46, 67 | 1975 | 323 | 42 | −10, 93 | 0·25 | 0·10 |
| Protein (g) | 69·6 | 12·1 | 71·6 | 12·5 | 1·5 | −0·7, 3·7 | 73·5 | 12·8 | 3·3 | 1·2, 5·3 | 0·008 | 0·002 |
| Animal protein (g) | 39·3 | 9·0 | 41·6 | 9·9 | 1·7 | −0·1, 3·5 | 42·4 | 10·2 | 2·9 | 1·3, 4·5 | 0·002 | <0·001 |
| Lipids (g) | 62·4 | 13·9 | 65·1 | 13·9 | 1·4 | −1·2, 4·0 | 65·7 | 14·7 | 2·2 | −0·1, 4·6 | 0·18 | 0·07 |
| Saturated fat (g) | 20·01 | 5·12 | 20·90 | 5·35 | 0·53 | −0·44, 1·50 | 20·82 | 5·40 | 0·40 | −0·50, 1·25 | 0·53 | 0·46 |
| Cholesterol (mg) | 345·3 | 107·4 | 362·9 | 113·2 | 15·7 | −4·6, 36·1 | 360·7 | 110·0 | 16·2 | −2·3, 34·8 | 0·17 | 0·10 |
| Carbohydrate (g) | 258·6 | 44·8 | 258·4 | 39·1 | −2·0 | −9·9, 5·8 | 265·5 | 46·2 | 2·3 | −4·8, 9·5 | 0·53 | 0·47 |
| Dietary fibre (g) | 12·4 | 3·0 | 12·4 | 2·6 | 0·1 | −0·4, 0·7 | 12·8 | 2·9 | 0·2 | −0·3, 0·7 | 0·71 | 0·43 |
| Energy from protein (%) | 14·7 | 1·4 | 14·8 | 1·3 | 0·1 | −0·1, 0·4 | 15·0 | 1·5 | 0·3 | 0·1, 0·6 | 0·021 | 0·005 |
| Energy from fat (%) | 29·1 | 3·4 | 29·9 | 3·4 | 0·5 | −0·1, 1·2 | 29·6 | 3·7 | 0·5 | −0·1, 1·1 | 0·18 | 0·12 |
| Energy from carbohydrate (%) | 56·2 | 3·8 | 55·3 | 3·8 | −0·7 | −1·4, 0·1 | 55·4 | 4·2 | −0·8 | −1·5, −0·2 | 0·039 | 0·018 |
| Retinol activity equivalents (µg) | 490 | 160 | 516 | 202 | 20 | −17, 57 | 526 | 236 | 7 | −27, 41 | 0·56 | 0·76 |
| Vitamin D (µg) | 5·7 | 3·2 | 5·9 | 3·4 | 0·2 | −0·5, 0·8 | 6·4 | 4·1 | 0·5 | −0·1, 1·1 | 0·19 | 0·07 |
| α-Tocopherol (mg) | 6·5 | 1·7 | 6·6 | 1·6 | 0·2 | −0·1, 0·5 | 6·8 | 1·7 | 0·3 | 0·0, 0·6 | 0·10 | 0·033 |
| Vitamin K (µg) | 182 | 78 | 188 | 77 | 7 | −7, 21 | 190 | 75 | 3 | −10, 16 | 0·61 | 0·75 |
| Thiamin (mg) | 1·13 | 0·24 | 1·16 | 0·25 | 0·10 | 0·00, 0·10 | 1·15 | 0·25 | 0·00 | −0·04, 0·04 | 0·98 | 0·94 |
| Riboflavin (mg) | 1·23 | 0·33 | 1·27 | 0·31 | 0·00 | 0·00, 0·10 | 1·28 | 0·28 | 0·03 | −0·02, 0·08 | 0·34 | 0·35 |
| Niacin equivalents (mg) | 27·7 | 5·5 | 28·9 | 5·3 | 0·8 | −0·2, 1·8 | 29·5 | 5·9 | 1·4 | 0·5, 2·4 | 0·010 | 0·003 |
| Vitamin B6 (mg) | 1·19 | 0·49 | 1·24 | 0·32 | 0·00 | 0·00, 0·10 | 1·24 | 0·28 | 0·03 | −0·04, 0·09 | 0·60 | 0·44 |
| Vitamin B12 (µg) | 5·2 | 2·5 | 5·6 | 2·7 | 0·4 | −0·1, 1·0 | 6·1 | 3·6 | 0·9 | 0·4, 1·4 | 0·002 | 0·001 |
| Folate (µg) | 269 | 71 | 268 | 67 | 4·0 | −8, 16 | 281 | 72 | 6 | −5, 18 | 0·53 | 0·27 |
| Pantothenic acid (mg) | 6·29 | 1·25 | 6·53 | 1·21 | 0·20 | 0·00, 0·40 | 6·62 | 1·23 | 0·22 | 0·02, 0·42 | 0·07 | 0·041 |
| Biotin (µg) | 29·6 | 8·1 | 30·2 | 7·8 | 0·9 | −0·5, 2·4 | 30·8 | 8·7 | 0·8 | −0·6, 2·1 | 0·38 | 0·29 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 98 | 43 | 105 | 89 | 5 | −5, 16 | 102 | 39 | −3 | −12, 6 | 0·26 | 0·43 |
| Na (mg) | 3650 | 674 | 3711 | 703 | 12 | −114, 138 | 3786 | 713 | 67 | −48, 182 | 0·48 | 0·24 |
| K (mg) | 2311 | 505 | 2382 | 446 | 66 | −22, 154 | 2439 | 485 | 69 | −11, 149 | 0·18 | 0·11 |
| Ca (mg) | 561 | 158 | 573 | 164 | 11 | −19, 41 | 588 | 162 | 11 | −16, 38 | 0·67 | 0·44 |
| Mg (mg) | 220 | 46 | 224 | 41 | 4 | −5, 12 | 233 | 45 | 9 | 1, 16 | 0·07 | 0·021 |
| P (mg) | 1057 | 200 | 1088 | 201 | 24 | −13, 60 | 1114 | 202 | 40 | 6, 73 | 0·07 | 0·021 |
| Fe (mg) | 6·6 | 1·5 | 6·8 | 1·4 | 0·2 | −0·1, 0·5 | 7·0 | 1·6 | 0·3 | 0·0, 0·5 | 0·09 | 0·031 |
| Zn (mg) | 8·4 | 1·5 | 8·7 | 1·6 | 0·2 | −0·1, 0·5 | 8·9 | 1·7 | 0·3 | 0·1, 0·6 | 0·042 | 0·016 |
| Cu (mg) | 1·04 | 0·21 | 1·08 | 0·21 | 0·03 | −0·01, 0·07 | 1·10 | 0·24 | 0·04 | 0·00, 0·08 | 0·08 | 0·039 |
| Mn (mg) | 2·39 | 0·52 | 2·38 | 0·48 | −0·02 | −0·12, 0·07 | 2·50 | 0·57 | 0·06 | −0·03, 0·15 | 0·23 | 0·18 |
| Iodine (µg) | 714 | 1718 | 685 | 1421 | −43 | −387, 301 | 1041 | 2104 | 257 | −57, 572 | 0·14 | 0·09 |
| Food groups | ||||||||||||
| Rice, noodles, breads, cereals (g) | 418 | 83 | 420 | 80 | −12 | −27, 3 | 429 | 97 | −4 | −18, 10 | 0·30 | 0·64 |
| Potatoes (g) | 58 | 29 | 60 | 31 | 2 | −3, 7 | 55 | 26 | −4 | −8, 1 | 0·08 | 0·10 |
| Sugar (g) | 7 | 5 | 8 | 5 | 1 | 0, 2 | 8 | 6 | 1 | 0, 2 | 0·025 | 0·008 |
| Nuts and seeds (g) | 2 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 0 | −1, 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | −1, 1 | 0·94 | 0·83 |
| Green vegetables (g) | 68 | 41 | 77 | 50 | 10 | 2, 19 | 74 | 50 | 1 | −7, 9 | 0·041 | 0·97 |
| Other vegetables (g) | 142 | 47 | 140 | 45 | −3 | −11, 6 | 145 | 48 | 0 | −8, 8 | 0·79 | 0·98 |
| Fruit (g) | 84 | 70 | 89 | 73 | 3 | −11, 17 | 100 | 83 | 9 | −4, 22 | 0·37 | 0·16 |
| Mushrooms (g) | 10 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 0 | −2, 1 | 11 | 11 | 1 | −1, 2 | 0·57 | 0·37 |
| Seaweeds (g) | 3 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 0 | −1, 1 | 3 | 7 | 1 | 0, 2 | 0·47 | 0·22 |
| Beans (g) | 34 | 28 | 32 | 27 | 0 | −5, 6 | 37 | 32 | 3 | −2, 7 | 0·51 | 0·26 |
| Fish and shellfish (g) | 47 | 26 | 49 | 27 | 3 | −2, 9 | 56 | 36 | 10 | 5, 15 | <0·001 | <0·001 |
| Meats, poultry (g) | 99 | 32 | 106 | 35 | 3 | −3, 10 | 105 | 37 | 5 | −1, 11 | 0·20 | 0·08 |
| Egg (g) | 38 | 21 | 41 | 22 | 3 | −1, 6 | 39 | 21 | 1 | −2, 5 | 0·44 | 0·57 |
| Milk, dairy products (g) | 221 | 110 | 235 | 113 | 8 | −14, 29 | 235 | 121 | 5 | −15, 25 | 0·77 | 0·67 |
| Fat and oil (g) | 13 | 5 | 13 | 6 | 0 | −1, 2 | 13 | 8 | 0 | −1, 1 | 0·82 | 0·80 |
| Confectionery (g) | 38 | 33 | 35 | 31 | −3 | −9, 4 | 40 | 37 | 0 | −6, 6 | 0·62 | 0·85 |
| Drinks (g) | 193 | 169 | 212 | 174 | 16 | −18, 50 | 205 | 190 | 12 | −18, 43 | 0·60 | 0·47 |
| Seasonings (g) | 43 | 13 | 46 | 16 | 2 | −1, 4 | 46 | 16 | 1 | −1, 4 | 0·53 | 0·40 |
*
Mean and sd of nutrients and food intake are unadjusted values.
†
Mean and 95 % CI of difference from low income are values adjusted for prefecture (A, B, C, D), school (nineteen schools), sex (male and female), BMI (continuous), exercise (>5 d/week, 3–4 d/week, 1–2 d/week and 0 d/week) and food allergy (yes, no) of the child, and parental education (less than high school, high school, college, university/graduate school, don’t know).
‡
Linear mixed-effects model was used to test difference in nutrient and food intake of children among household income levels. Adjusted for the variables above.
§
A linear trend test was used with the median value in each income group as a continuous variable in regression analysis. Adjusted for the variables above.