Table 4.
Nutrient and food intake household income level: average of 2 d without school lunch among 5th grade children (10–11 years old) at nineteen schools in four prefectures, Japan, September–December 2013
| Low income (n 319) | Middle income (n 194) | High income (n 323) | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Difference from low income | Difference from low income | |||||||||||
| Energy/nutrient/food group | Mean* | sd * | Mean* | sd * | Mean† | 95 % CI† | Mean* | sd * | Mean† | 95 % CI† | P value‡ | P for trend§ |
| Energy and nutrients | ||||||||||||
| Energy (kJ) | 7590 | 1657 | 7803 | 1619 | 105 | –201, 414 | 7971 | 1715 | 234 | –46, 515 | 0·26 | 0·10 |
| Energy (kcal) | 1814 | 396 | 1865 | 387 | 25 | −48, 99 | 1905 | 410 | 56 | −11, 123 | 0·26 | 0·10 |
| Protein (g) | 64·4 | 14·8 | 68·0 | 16·6 | 3·0 | 0·0, 6·0 | 70·5 | 17·2 | 5·5 | 2·7, 8·2 | <0·001 | <0·001 |
| Animal protein (g) | 35·2 | 11·7 | 38·5 | 13·3 | 2·8 | 0·4, 5·3 | 40·2 | 14·6 | 5·1 | 2·8, 7·3 | <0·001 | <0·001 |
| Lipids (g) | 59·9 | 18·8 | 63·9 | 18·8 | 2·3 | −1·3, 5·9 | 64·6 | 19·8 | 3·2 | −0·1, 6·4 | 0·15 | 0·06 |
| Saturated fat (g) | 18·26 | 6·76 | 19·56 | 6·96 | 0·90 | −0·40, 2·10 | 19·52 | 7·02 | 0·50 | −0·68, 1·67 | 0·42 | 0·47 |
| Cholesterol (mg) | 334·3 | 139·2 | 365·6 | 161·5 | 21·1 | −7·4, 50·0 | 372·8 | 155·7 | 33·0 | 7·0, 59·0 | 0·043 | 0·014 |
| Carbohydrate (g) | 247·4 | 55·5 | 247·1 | 51·4 | −2·0 | −12·2, 8·1 | 253·0 | 57·4 | 1·1 | −8·2, 10·3 | 0·83 | 0·78 |
| Dietary fibre (g) | 11·0 | 3·5 | 11·5 | 3·5 | 0·5 | −1·0, 1·1 | 11·5 | 3·3 | 0·2 | −0·4, 0·8 | 0·31 | 0·59 |
| Energy from protein (%) | 14·4 | 1·9 | 14·6 | 1·9 | 0·3 | −0·7, 0·7 | 14·9 | 2·1 | 0·6 | 0·3, 1·0 | 0·001 | <0·001 |
| Energy from fat (%) | 29·1 | 4·9 | 30·3 | 5·0 | 0·8 | −0·2, 1·7 | 30·1 | 5·3 | 0·8 | −0·1, 1·7 | 0·14 | 0·09 |
| Energy from carbohydrate (%) | 56·5 | 5·3 | 55·1 | 5·7 | −1·1 | −2·2, 0·0 | 55·0 | 6·0 | −1·4 | −2·4, −0·5 | 0·012 | 0·005 |
| Retinol activity equivalents (µg) | 395 | 229 | 427 | 232 | 25 | −15, 70 | 425 | 227 | 2 | −37, 40 | 0·37 | 0·96 |
| Vitamin D (µg) | 4·9 | 4·3 | 5·3 | 4·8 | 0·2 | −0·7, 1·1 | 5·7 | 5·2 | 0·8 | 0·0, 1·6 | 0·15 | 0·06 |
| α-Tocopherol (mg) | 6·2 | 2·2 | 6·6 | 2·2 | 0·3 | −0·1, 0·7 | 6·8 | 2·2 | 0·5 | 0·1, 9·0 | 0·034 | 0·011 |
| Vitamin K (µg) | 162 | 100 | 173 | 98 | 14 | −4, 32 | 170 | 90 | 5 | −11, 22 | 0·30 | 0·62 |
| Thiamin (mg) | 0·96 | 0·30 | 0·96 | 0·31 | 0·00 | −0·05, 0·06 | 1·00 | 0·30 | 0·03 | −0·03, 0·08 | 0·61 | 0·33 |
| Riboflavin (mg) | 1·05 | 0·37 | 1·12 | 0·41 | 0·07 | −0·01, 0·14 | 1·13 | 0·37 | 0·06 | −0·01, 0·12 | 0·13 | 0·12 |
| Niacin equivalents (mg) | 26·2 | 7·2 | 27·5 | 7·4 | 1·2 | −0·2, 2·7 | 28·7 | 8·4 | 2·5 | 1·2, 3·8 | 0·001 | <0·001 |
| Vitamin B6 (mg) | 1·07 | 0·47 | 1·14 | 0·40 | 0·07 | −0·01, 0·15 | 1·15 | 0·35 | 0·07 | 0·00, 0·14 | 0·083 | 0·06 |
| Vitamin B12 (µg) | 4·7 | 3·2 | 5·7 | 4·4 | 1·0 | 0·2, 1·7 | 6·0 | 4·6 | 1·4 | 0·7, 2·1 | <0·001 | <0·001 |
| Folate (µg) | 230 | 81 | 243 | 88 | 16 | 0, 31 | 247 | 83 | 12 | −2, 26 | 0·10 | 0·14 |
| Pantothenic acid (mg) | 5·47 | 1·53 | 5·83 | 1·55 | 0·31 | 0·02, 0·60 | 5·93 | 1·58 | 0·34 | 0·08, 0·60 | 0·024 | 0·016 |
| Biotin (µg) | 24·9 | 10·0 | 27·1 | 11·1 | 1·7 | −0·2, 3·7 | 27·0 | 10·5 | 1·6 | −0·2, 3·4 | 0·14 | 0·11 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 84 | 55 | 103 | 172 | 18 | 0, 36 | 90 | 53 | −1 | −18, 16 | 0·07 | 0·74 |
| Na (mg) | 3509 | 860 | 3556 | 894 | 37 | −130, 204 | 3663 | 943 | 105 | −47, 257 | 0·38 | 0·17 |
| K (mg) | 1970 | 607 | 2091 | 591 | 133 | 22, 244 | 2127 | 602 | 113 | 11, 214 | 0·031 | 0·044 |
| Ca (mg) | 423 | 182 | 453 | 206 | 29 | −7, 66 | 455 | 197 | 16 | −17, 50 | 0·29 | 0·41 |
| Mg (mg) | 194 | 54 | 203 | 53 | 10 | 0, 21 | 209 | 55 | 13 | 3, 22 | 0·019 | 0·009 |
| P (mg) | 931 | 240 | 986 | 258 | 50 | 3, 97 | 1014 | 266 | 67 | 24, 110 | 0·008 | 0·003 |
| Fe (mg) | 6·2 | 1·9 | 6·6 | 1·9 | 0·4 | 0·1, 0·7 | 6·6 | 1·9 | 0·4 | 0·1, 0·7 | 0·029 | 0·029 |
| Zn (mg) | 7·7 | 2·1 | 8·2 | 2·1 | 0·4 | 0·0, 0·8 | 8·3 | 2·2 | 0·5 | 0·1, 0·8 | 0·018 | 0·012 |
| Cu (mg) | 0·97 | 0·25 | 1·04 | 0·29 | 0·06 | 0·01, 0·12 | 1·04 | 0·33 | 0·06 | 0·01, 0·11 | 0·028 | 0·023 |
| Mn (mg) | 2·27 | 0·63 | 2·25 | 0·64 | 0·01 | −0·12, 0·13 | 2·35 | 0·71 | 0·06 | −0·05, 0·17 | 0·49 | 0·26 |
| Iodine (µg) | 622 | 2261 | 732 | 2206 | 135 | −350, 621 | 1068 | 3037 | 433 | −11, 876 | 0·15 | 0·05 |
| Food groups | ||||||||||||
| Rice, noodles, breads, cereals (g) | 423 | 110 | 417 | 107 | −18 | −39, 2 | 432 | 119 | −8 | −28, 11 | 0·21 | 0·52 |
| Potatoes (g) | 43 | 40 | 48 | 45 | 4 | −4, 11 | 41 | 34 | −3 | −10, 3 | 0·18 | 0·26 |
| Sugar (g) | 5 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 1 | 0, 3 | 7 | 8 | 2 | 1, 3 | 0·004 | 0·001 |
| Nuts and seeds (g) | 1 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 0 | −1, 1 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 0, 1 | 0·71 | 0·42 |
| Green vegetables (g) | 56 | 50 | 69 | 65 | 14 | 4, 25 | 62 | 58 | −1 | −11, 9 | 0·008 | 0·61 |
| Other vegetables (g) | 110 | 58 | 107 | 58 | 0 | −11, 10 | 110 | 57 | 1 | −9, 10 | 0·98 | 0·89 |
| Fruit (g) | 80 | 87 | 85 | 96 | 7 | −11, 24 | 94 | 98 | 11 | −5, 27 | 0·40 | 0·18 |
| Mushrooms (g) | 8 | 11 | 8 | 10 | 0 | −2, 3 | 9 | 15 | 0 | −2, 3 | 0·90 | 0·65 |
| Seaweeds (g) | 2 | 5 | 3 | 6 | 1 | −1, 2 | 3 | 7 | 1 | −1, 2 | 0·49 | 0·34 |
| Beans (g) | 26 | 34 | 27 | 36 | 1 | −5, 8 | 30 | 37 | 2 | −4, 9 | 0·75 | 0·45 |
| Fish and shellfish (g) | 43 | 35 | 48 | 38 | 6 | −2, 13 | 55 | 48 | 14 | 7, 21 | <0·001 | <0·001 |
| Meats, poultry (g) | 98 | 47 | 105 | 49 | 5 | −4, 14 | 108 | 53 | 10 | 2, 18 | 0·07 | 0·022 |
| Egg (g) | 39 | 28 | 43 | 30 | 1 | −4, 7 | 42 | 29 | 2 | −3, 7 | 0·72 | 0·43 |
| Milk, dairy products (g) | 123 | 124 | 137 | 128 | 12 | −13, 37 | 138 | 139 | 7 | −16, 29 | 0·63 | 0·61 |
| Fat and oil (g) | 13 | 8 | 13 | 9 | 0 | −2, 2 | 13 | 9 | −1 | −2, 1 | 0·76 | 0·47 |
| Confectionery (g) | 42 | 47 | 42 | 49 | 2 | −8, 11 | 43 | 49 | 0 | −8, 9 | 0·93 | 0·94 |
| Drinks (g) | 224 | 222 | 243 | 219 | 20 | −24, 64 | 236 | 250 | 14 | −27, 54 | 0·64 | 0·55 |
| Seasonings (g) | 40 | 18 | 45 | 24 | 4 | 0, 8 | 44 | 22 | 3 | −1, 6 | 0·13 | 0·18 |
*
Mean and sd of nutrients and food intake are unadjusted values.
†
Mean and 95 % CI of difference from low income are values adjusted for prefecture (A, B, C, D), school (nineteen schools), sex (male and female), BMI (continuous), exercise (>5 d/week, 3–4 d/week, 1–2 d/week and 0 d/week) and food allergy (yes, no) of the child, and parental education (less than high school, high school, college, university/graduate school, don’t know).
‡
Linear mixed-effects model was used to test difference in nutrient and food intake of children among household income levels. Adjusted for the variables above.
§
A linear trend test was used with the median value in each income group as a continuous variable in regression analysis. Adjusted for the variables above.