Table 3.
Studies concerning mental health.
| Mental Health | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *The information in columns’ purpose and major findings are quoted directly from the original publications. | ||||||||||
| Collected data | ||||||||||
| Author (year)a | Country | N | Population | Pet | Purpose | Intervention methods | Pet owner M(SD) | Non-pet owner M(SD) | Major findings | Quality score |
| Amiot (30) | Canada | T = 1,220 | Adults | Any type of pet | “Investigate the differences that may exist between pet vs. non-pet owners in terms of their well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic” | UCLA LSS PStressS Vitality PLF COVID (impact) |
2.29 (0.55) 4.35 (1.45) 2.79 (0.62) 4.22 (1.33) 4.57 (1.36) 3.60 (1.32) |
2.23 (0.52) 4.53 (1.38) 2.74 (0.57) 4.34 (1.28) 4.75 (1.25) 3.44 (1.23) |
“Pet owners reported lower well-being than non-pet owners on a majority of well-being indicators; this general pet ownership effect held when accounting for pet species (dogs, cats, other species) and number of pets owned. Compared to owners of other pets, dog owners reported higher well-being” | 14 |
| Antonacopoulos (51) | Canada | DO = 31; NDO = 35 |
Adults | Dog | “Examining the loneliness levels of adults in the general population who acquired a dog and a control group of non-dog guardians over an 8-month period using both an indirect and a direct measure of loneliness” | UCLA LS |
Baseline 44.68 (13.25) 8 months 41.81 (12.10) Baseline 1.06 (1.21) 8 months 0.61 (0.80) |
Baseline 46.86 (12.17) 8 months 46.91 (12.71) Baseline 1.00 (0.97) 8 months 1.23 (1.06) |
“Changes in loneliness differed for owners and non-owners when assessed with a direct measure (1-item scale). Owners who adopted the dog had lower levels of loneliness from baseline to 8 months compared to non-owners. Loneliness when assessed by indirect measure, having a dog had no effect on loneliness (UCLA scale)” | 22* |
| Ballin (74) | Sweden | DO = 199; NDO = 1,207 |
Older adults | Dog | “Investigated the associations of doing with accelerometer-measured in a population-based sample of 70-year-old women and men.” | GDS15 | 1.4 (1.7) | 1.2 (1.8) | “DO was associated with higher levels of daily LPA, MVPA, and steps compared to non-owners. | 15 |
| Black (25) | USA | PO = 246; NPO = 47 |
Children | Any type of pet | “To investigate whether pet ownership and pet attachment are related to self-reported loneliness and social support among adolescents” | UCLA | 33.7 (8.8) | 39.5 (9.2) | “Pet owning adolescents had significantly lower loneliness scores and there was an inverse relationship between the level of bond with pet and levels of loneliness” | 13 |
| Bennett (24) | Australia | PO = 41; NPO = 27 |
Older adults | Dog; Cat; Large mamal; Bird; Fish |
“To investigate whether the presence of a pet was associated with the presence and indicators of psychological well-being” | PWI-A PSS UCLA DASS-21: Depression Anxiety Stress |
83.78 (13.1) 83.56 (8.2) 34.37 (9.5) 4.20 (5.0) 3.00 (3.7) 8.78 (7.4) |
82.59 (11.3) 82.20 (7.1) 34.65 (6.9) 2.07 (2.5) 3.33 (3.1) 8.30 (6.5) |
“Having a pet may not be associated with substantial differences in indicators of well-being in older people” | 15 |
| Bradley and Bennett (52) | Australia | PO = 114; NPO = 31 |
Adults who self-identified as having a chronic pain disorder | Dog; Cat |
“Understand why therapy animals relieve pain in healthcare settings, but pet owners report greater discomfort and use more painkillers than people who do not own one or more pets” | DASS-21: Depression Anxiety Stress NPRS |
18.10 (12.52) 11.28 (8.15) 17.47 (10.06) 6.14 (1.69) |
11.74 (9.57) 10.39 (7.75) 15.35 (8.80) 5.92 (1.8) |
“There was no significant difference between reported pain, anxiety, or stress levels in owners versus non-owners. Pet owners reported more depressive symptoms than non-owners, but owners with animals perceived as more friendly reported fewer depressive symptoms” | 14 |
| Branson (53) | USA | POcat = 41; NPO = 55 |
Older adults | Cat | “Determine if attachment to cats was associated with psychosocial responses (stress, depression, and loneliness)” | PStressS UCLA GDS MOCA |
bp = 0.45 p = 0.83 p = 0.22 p = 0.37 |
“There were no significant changes between biopsychosocial and cognitive health outcomes with cat ownership” | 14 | |
| Brkljacic (54) | Croatia | PO = 658; NPO = 3,883 | Adults | Any type of pet | “Provide deeper insight into the relationship between pet-related life events and the subjective wellbeing of pet owners” | GLS BES SH |
7.04 (1.91) 6.92 (2.10) 4.11 (0.79) |
7.03 (2.02) 6.91 (2.09) 4.14 (0.82) |
“There were no differences significant in subjective well-being indices, general life satisfaction and overall happiness, between the groups” | 15 |
| Canady and Sansone (55) | USA | PO = 153; NPO = 51 |
Adults | Any type of pet | “Examine whether companion animal owners report that having a companion animal would influence an important health decision, and whether existing social support and quality of the relationship with the companion animal might impact the likelihood of this occurring” | ISEL-12 | 35.4 (7.1) | 34.5 (8.3) | “Having a pet can influence the decision to be hospitalized. It seems likely that social support acts as a buffer. Individuals with good social support entrust the care of their pets to others to receive the medical care they need” | 14 |
| Carr (75) | Canada | PO = 20; NPO = 36 |
Adults with chronic low back pain. | Any type of pet | “Evaluate the feasibility of surveying people with chronic low back pain to empirically assess the relationship between dog ownership and well-being for people with chronic low back pain” | NPRS ODI: Intensity ODI: Walking SF4 Depression Loneliness Emotional support Companionship |
6.40 (1.67) 3.65 (0.93) 2.65 (0.93) 2.14 (0.79) 2.81 (1.38) 3.64 (0.98) 3.62 (1.15) |
7.00 (1.45) 3.74 (0.95) 2.94 (0.92) 2.73 (1.10) 3.32 (1.51) 3.24 (1.26) 2.99 (1.27) |
“Dog owners reported fewer depression and anxiety symptoms, and more social ties than non-dog owners. Living with a dog may be associated with improved well-being for people with chronic pain” | 13 |
| Cloutier and Peetz (56) | Canada | PO = 54; NPO = 62 |
Adults | Dog; Cat; Fish |
“Compared pet owners and non-pet owners perceived relational quality, by assessing a variety of relationship quality facets, and examined whether there is any evidence of an association between pet ownership and quality of relationships” | QRS Responsiveness to Partner DAS RIMS |
6.41 (0.56) 5.16 (0.52) 4.84 (0.55) 6.38 (0.76) |
6.06 (0.74) 4.86 (0.61) 4.41 (0.73) 6.06 (0.71) |
“Pet ownership was associated with several relationship benefits (higher overall relationship quality, partner responsiveness, adjustment, and relational investment) compared to couples without pets” | 14 |
| Curl et al. (57) | USA | DO = 188; NDO = 288 |
Older adults | Dog | “Examine the relationship between dog ownership, dog walking, and the emotional bond with a dog to contact with neighbors and life satisfaction in a nationally representative sample of adults in the United States over the age of 50” | SE LS SRH |
1.86 (2.24) 2.78 (0.85) 2.26 (1.07) |
1.79 (2.37) 2.91 (0.86) 2.26 (1.04) |
“Dog ownership did not have a direct or indirect relationship on life satisfaction. However, time spent in dog walking was associated with the frequency of social interactions, which itself had a positive association with life satisfaction” | 15 |
| Endo (58) | Japan | DO = 254; POcat = 109; NPO = 2,230 |
Children | Dog; Cat | “Examine the effect of dog and cat ownership on the longitudinal trajectory of the mental well-being of adolescents” | WHO-5 (Dog) WHO-5 (Cat) |
at age 10 79.42 (16.83) at age 12 77.53 (17.60) at age 10 80.04 (15.65) at age 12 69.69 (21.06) |
at age 10 78.98 (16.63) at age 12 75.11 (18.87) at age 10 78.98 (16.63) at age 12 75.11 (18.87) |
“Dog ownership and cat ownership differently predicted adolescent”s well-being. The well-being trajectory of dog owners was maintained through adolescence, while that of cat owners declined” | 15 |
| Feng (76) | United Kingdom | DO = 50; NDO = 497 |
Older adults | Dog | “To assess whether dog ownership in the older adult is associated with objectively measured physical activity” | HADS: Depression HADS Anxiety SF-36: Physical functioning SF-36: General health SF-36: Social functioning SF-36: Role Emotional SF-36: Mental health SF-36: Vitality SF-36: Pain SF-36: Role Physical |
2.9 (2.6) 3.4 (2.8) 79 (17) 76 (17) 89 (24) 96 (12) 85 (13) 63 (22) 71 (28) 82 (27) |
3.7 (2.7) 4.3 (3.2) 70 (23) 66 (21) 88 (22) 96 (11) 82 (13) 59 (20) 68 (26) 82 (25) |
“The results suggest that dog ownership may motivate PA and enable older people to overcome many potential barriers to PA such as lack of social support. The effect of dog ownership on PA was independent of depression and perceived behavioral control but was mediated in part by general health and physical function” | 16 |
| Grajfoner (59) | Malaysia | PO = 202; NPO = 224 |
Adults | Dog; Cat |
“Explore both the structure of companion animals in Malaysia and the effect of pets on mental health and wellbeing of Malaysians during the COVID-19” | WEMWBS DASS-21: Depression Anxiety Stress BRS CSE PANAS: Positive Negative |
45.35 (10.58) 24.36 (9.66) 22.56 (8.79) 24.92 (9.34) 19.09 (3.19) 88.93 (16.00) 31.56 (7.63) 24.85 (7.95) |
43.28 (9.81) 23.54 (9.50) 22.55 (8.91) 24.51 (9.23) 18.87 (3.17) 83.88 (18.74) 29.43 (7.16) 25.08 (6.98) |
“Pet owners reported significantly better coping self-efficacy, significantly more positive emotions, and better psychological wellbeing” | 14 |
| Hajek and Konig (60) | Germany | DO = 63; POcat = 145; NPO = 952 |
Older adults | Dog; Cat |
“Identify whether cat owners, dog owners, and individuals without pets differ in terms of depressive symptoms, loneliness, and social isolation among individuals in old age without a partner” | CES-D (dog) CES-D (cat) SI (dog) SI (cat) 11-DJGLS (dog) 11-DJGLS (cat) SRH (dog) SRH (cat) NPI (dog) NPI (cat) SF-36: physical health (dog) SF-36: physical health (cat) |
7.3 (6.5) 7.8 (7.3) 1.6 (0.6) 1.7 (0.7) 1.7 (0.5) 1.8 (0.6) 2.7 (0.9) 2.6 (0.8) 3.5 (2.2) 3.5 (1.9) 74.3 (23.3) 75.7 (25.6) |
7.2 (6.1) 7.2 (6.1) 1.7 (0.6) 1.7 (0.6) 1.8 (0.6) 1.8 (0.6) 2.6 (0.8) 2.6 (0.8) 3.4 (2.1) 3.4 (2.1) 72.0 (27.2) 72.0 (27.2) |
“There was an association between owning a dog and social isolation (total sample) as well as loneliness (total sample and women)” | 14 |
| Hill (61) | Australia | PO = 392; NPO = 146 |
Adults | Any type of pet | “Explore the relationship between the HAB, perceived human social support, and resilience by assessing whether the HAB (human–animal bond) could moderate the impact of social support as a protective factor for resilience” | MSPSS CD-RISC |
5.78 (0.96) 49.38 (11.85) |
5.74 (0.98) 48.23 (11.48) |
“There was no difference in levels of resilience between pet owners and non-owners, but social support was positively associated with resilience for both. The HAB was not a significant moderator between levels of social support and resilience for owners” | 13 |
| Kim and Chun (62) | Korea | PO = 8,708; NPO = 33,979 | Adults | Dog; Cat |
“Examine the association between companion animal ownership and overall life satisfaction, one measure of human well-being” | GLS | 56.02 (10.25) | 54.79 (10.68) | “Pet ownership was associated with higher levels of overall life satisfaction” | 15 |
| Mičková (77) | Czech Republic | DO = 26; NDO = 18 |
Older adults | Dog | “To see if dog ownership affects physical activity, sleep, and self-reported health in a group of older adult people” | SF-36: General health SF-36: Health change SF-36: Physical functioning SF-36: Social functioning SF-36: Emotional SF-36: Pain SF-36: Vitality SF-36: Role Emotional) SF-36: Role Physical |
72 (15) 47 (11) 88 (12) 90 (18) 80 (12) 78 (19) 67 (15) 86 (29) 85 (27) |
46 (14) 43 (14) 72 (22) 76 (18) 69 (13) 62 (22) 47 (6) 83 (26) 71 (33) |
“A positive effect on their overall health assessed by SF-36 was observed in most of the monitored parameters. The results suggest that dog walking affects the overall PA of older adults and it brings positive effects on the quality of life” | 14 |
| Mueller (78) | USA | PO = 910; NPO = 310 |
Children | Any type of pet | “Contribute to the emerging research on companion animals and mental health during the pandemic by assessing the relationships between pet ownership, pet attachment, loneliness, and stress coping for adolescents” | LS | Time 1 1.43 (0.52) Time 2 1.62 (0.60) |
Time 1 1.47 (0.53) Time 2 1.49 (0.52) |
“The results of this study do not support the presence of a buffering effect of companion animals on loneliness for adolescents” | 16 |
| Muldoon (63) | United Kingdom | DO = 2,784; PO = 1992 NPO = 1887 |
Children | Any type of pet |
“To see if within the broader population of children and adolescents, to what extent attachment to dogs: (a) is stronger than attachment to other pets; (b) differs from emotional connections to other animals; and (c) is associated with any specific welfare benefits” | SAPS (dog) SAPS (pet) |
bd = 0.68 d = 0.25 |
“Pets, especially dogs, have an impact on well-being when a strong emotional bond is present” | 14 | |
| Muraco (64) | USA | PO = 1,039; NPO = 1,326 |
Adults LGBT | Any type of pet | “Understanding whether having a pet is related to perceived social support and social network dimension” | PSS | 3.19 (0.76) | 2.99 (0.8) | “There is evidence that pets can increase feelings of social support for people with disabilities and limited social networks” | 14 |
| Phillipou (43) | Australia | PO = 138; NPO = 125 |
Adults | Dog; Cat |
“Explore the mental health effects of pet ownership during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown” | DASS-21: Depression Anxiety Stress UCLA BRS EUROHISQoL |
13.15 (10.79) 6.38 (7.48) 13.64 (9.43) 9.1 (3.09) 3.2 (0.99) 27.2 (7.27) |
11.57 (10.35) 6.14 (7.66) 13.15 (8.82) 8.53 (2.65) 3.3 (0.89) 28.81 (6.61) |
“Contrary to expectations, the results suggest that during a specific situation such as a pandemic, pets may contribute to an increased burden on owners and contribute to a worse quality of life” | 14 |
| Pruchno (65) | USA | DO = 1,160; POcat = 947; POdog+ cat = 441; NPO = 2,954 |
Adults | Dog; Cat |
“Examined the associations among human social relationships, owning a dog or a cat, and successful aging” | SS (Dog) SS (Cat) SS (Dog; cat) SSA (Dog) SSA (Cat) SSA (Dog; cat) |
4.3 (0.8) 4.2 (0.9) 4.2 (0.9) 23.7 (4.3) 23.1 (4.7) 23.1 (4.4) |
4.2 (0.8) 4.2 (0.8) 4.2 (0.8) 23.4 (4.4) 23.4 (4.4) 23.4 (4.4) |
“Findings carry practical implications for supporting pet ownership of older people, suggesting that dogs have a positive association with successful aging” | 14 |
| Ramírez and Hernández (66) | USA | DO = 377; NDO = 225 |
Adults | Dog | “Compared the perceived health, perceived stress, life satisfaction, happiness and psychosomatic symptoms in two equivalent groups that differed only in dog ownership” | LSS SHS PHQ PStressS SF-12: Mental health SF-12: Physical health |
16.0 (2.8) 22.7 (3.4) 5.3 (3.9) 18.0 (7.3) 51.0 (8.2) 52.8 (6.9) |
15.6 (3.0) 22.5 (3.7) 6.0 (3.9) 20.0 (7.2) 48.7 (8.7) 51.9 (7.5) |
“Dog owners perceived themselves as healthier but not happier than non-dog owners” | 14 |
| Reis (67) | Portugal | DO = 1764; POcat = 739; POdog+ cat = 901 PO = 520; NPO = 1,211 |
Children | Any type of pet | “Identify in a large national representative sample of Portuguese adolescents, the percentage of adolescents that have pets, what kind of feelings pets provide, differences by gender and age (through school grades) and to verify whether adolescent health, well-being, life satisfaction, and psychological symptoms are associated with having a pet (in particular dogs or cats)” | Kidscreen-10 (Dog) Kidscreen-10 (cat) Kidscreen-10 (Dog; cat) Kidscreen-10 (pets) LSS (Dog) LSS (Cat) LSS (Dog; cat) LSS (pets) PS (Dog) PS (Cat) PS (Dog; cat) PS (pets) |
39.41 (6.62) 38.30 (6.98) 38.44 (6.64) 39.05 (6.70) 7.50 (1.96) 7.18 (1.99) 7.34 (1.94) 7.43 (1.95) 6.55 (1.41) 6.38 (1.46) 6.39 (1.45) 6.54 (1.41) |
39.03 (6.79) 39.03 (6.79) 39.03 (6.79) 39.03 (6.79) 7.42 (1.93) 7.42 (1.93) 7.42 (1.93) 7.42 (1.93) 6.52 (1.42) 6.52 (1.42) 6.52 (1.42) 6.52 (1.42) |
“Having a dog was associated with a higher socio-economic status. Better perception of well-being. More life satisfaction and less psychological symptoms” | 15 |
| Roux and Wright (68) | Africa | PO = 3,108; NPO = 221 | Adults | Dog; Cat |
“Investigate whether pet attachment was related to perceived stress and life satisfaction in a sample of South Africans” | PSS SWLS |
17.9 (7.16) 23.4 (6.79) |
18.1 (6.09) 22.9 (7.11) |
“Dog owners were significantly more attached to their dogs. Significantly more satisfied with their lives and had significantly less stress than cat owners” | 14 |
| Taniguchi (13) | Japan | PO = 1,545; NPO = 6,377 |
Older adults | Dog; Cat |
“Evaluated physical function. PA. social function. and psychological function of a population of community-dwelling older Japanese dog and cat owners”: | GDS-5 WHO-5 |
1.2 (1.3) 62.5 (23.3) |
1.3 (1.3) 60.2 (24.4) |
“Caring for a dog or cat might be an effective health promotion strategy to increase physical activity and facilitate social participation among older adults” | 16 |
| Teo and Thomas (70) | Australia | DO = 332; PO = 332; NPO = 176 |
Adults | Any type of pet |
“Compare multi-faceted QOL. psychological distress. and psychopathology of pet owners and non-pet owners” | DASS-21 Depression(dog) Depression (pets) Anxiety (dog) Anxiety (pets) Stress (dog) Stress (pets) BSI (dog) BSI (pets) WHOQOL (dog) WHOQOL (pets) |
8.67 (8.87) 7.85 (9.50) 6.01 (6.86) 5.37 (7.21) 11.08 (8.29) 8.65 (7.80) 0.79 (0.62) 0.67 (0.59) 58.30 (9.04) 58.44 (8.71) |
7.05 (8.36) 7.05 (8.36) 5.56 (6.12) 5.56 (6.12) 8.78 (7.57) 8.78 (7.57) 0.66 (0.58) 0.66 (0.58) 58.54 (9.82) 58.54 (9.82) |
“Pet owners and non-owners did not differ significantly in terms of well-being” | 14 |
| Watson and Weinstein (71) | USA | PO = 42; NPO = 42 |
Adults women | Dog; Cat | “Explore the potential psychological benefits of pet ownership among working women” | BDI STAI STAXI: state STAXI: trait |
5.5 (4.1) 32.5 (10.2) 10.9 (2.5) 17.5 (4.6) |
6.0 (4.5) 35.9 (9.4) 11.0 (1.7) 18.8 (4.2) |
“Results revealed that there were no significant differences between owners” and non-owners” | 13 |
| Wright (72) | United Kingdom | DO = 14; NDO = 26 |
Children with autism | Dog | “Investigate the potential of dogs to improve family functioning in families with children with autism and explore the effects of pet dogs on anxiety in these children” | CAS | Baseline 0.33 (0.05) Follow-Up 0.30 (0.04) |
Baseline 0.26 (0.03) Follow-Up 0.23 (0.03) |
“Acquisition of a dog may be associated with improvements in family functioning and child anxiety” | 23* |
| Wright (73) | USA | DO = 36; POcat = 15; NDO = 47; NPO = 9 |
Adults LGBT | Dog; Cat | “Understanding the relationship between pet companionship and quality of life outcomes in sexual minority prostate cancer survivors” | SF-12 | 46.05 (10.34) 50.8 (11.4) |
48.5 (10.26) 51.4 (8.34) |
“Pet companionship may be a net stressor for gay and bisexual men following prostate cancer treatment” | 14 |
PO, pet owner; NPO, Non-pet owner; N, sample size; SD, standard deviation; M, mean. instruments: BDI, beck depression inventory; BES, subjective happiness scale; CAS, children’s anxiety scale; CD-RISC, the Connor-Davidson resilience scale; CES-D, depression scale; DAS, dyadic adjustment scale; DASS-21, depression anxiety stress scale; GDS-5, geriatric depression scale; GHQ-30, 30-item general health questionnaire; GLS, general life satisfaction; HADS, hospital anxiety and depression score; ISEL-12, interpersonal support evaluation; LS, loneliness scale; LSS, life satisfaction scale; MOCA, the Montreal cognitive assessment; MSPSS, multidimensional scale of perceived social support; NPI, number of physical illnesses; NPRS, numeric pain rating scale; ODI, Oswestry disability index; PHQ, patient health questionnaire; PLF, presence of life meaning; PS, psychological symptoms; PSS, perceived social support; PStressS, perceived stress scale; PWI-A, personal wellbeing index-adult; QRS, quality of relationship scale; RIMS, Rusbult investment model scale; SAPS, short attachment to pets scale; SE, social engagement; SF4, anxiety and depression scale (PROMIS); SF-12, short form health survey; SF-36, health survey; SH, subjective health; SHS, subjective happiness scale; SI, social isolation; SRH, self-rated health; SS, social support; SSA, subjective successful aging; STAI, StateTrait anxiety inventory; STAXI, state–trait anger expression inventory; SWLS, satisfaction with life scale; UCLA, loneliness scale; WHO-5, Weel-being index; 11-JGLS, 11-item De Jong Gierveld- Loneliness scale; PSS, perceived stress scale.
*
Down’s and Black tool uses 27 criteria.
a
Articles arranged in alphabetical order.
b
General results selected due to the absence of mean and standard deviation measures.