. 2023 Jun 12;23:1121. doi: 10.1186/s12889-023-15874-7

Table 2.

Global DALYs attributable to lead exposure in 1990 and 2019, and the temporal trend from 1990 to 2019

Cause of DALYs	1990		2019	1990–2019
All causes
Both	160.25 (103.21, 221.68)	378.01 (240.55, 524.18)	0.76 (0.48, 1.05)	216.76 (138.13, 302.98)	267.52 (170.57, 373.44)	0.82 (0.53, 1.14)	-1.19 (-1.24, -1.14)	0.28 (0.23, 0.33)
Female	58.31 (34.51, 84.98)	260.52 (150.50, 383.12)	0.56 (0.33, 0.82)	80.43 (48.18, 117.28)	188.85 (113.07, 274.64)	0.62 (0.38, 0.90)	-1.12 (-1.19, -1.05)	0.36 (0.29, 0.44)
Male	101.94 (68.25, 136.87)	512.87 (339.34, 692.87)	0.95 (0.63, 1.28)	136.34 (88.81, 188.24)	357.56 (233.38, 493.30)	1.00 (0.67, 1.37)	-1.24 (-1.30, -1.18)	0.20 (0.15, 0.26)
Disease type
Cardiovascular diseases	128.85 (77.34, 186.47)	318.54 (190.85, 461.21)	4.50 (2.70, 6.45)	177.35 (104.88, 256.6)	216.80 (128.35, 314.82)	4.46 (2.67, 6.35)	-1.32 (-1.39, -1.25)	-0.04 (-0.16, 0.08)
Rheumatic heart disease	3.20 (1.69, 5.44)	7.18 (3.87, 12.16)	2.53 (1.40, 4.25)	2.14 (1.07, 3.73)	2.58 (1.28, 4.55)	1.95 (1.00, 3.42)	-3.46 (-3.58, -3.34)	-0.91 (-1.02, -0.80)
Ischemic heart disease	54.09 (31.78, 79.51)	134.35 (78.06, 199.09)	4.27 (2.50, 6.29)	83.69 (48.96, 124.49)	102.26 (59.74, 152.87)	4.56 (2.72, 6.68)	-0.94 (-1.01, -0.88)	0.22 (0.04, 0.40)
Stroke	54.37 (32.53, 79.52)	133.36 (80.09, 195.09)	4.88 (2.94, 7.03)	67.39 (39.12, 98.16)	81.97 (47.86, 119.11)	4.64 (2.73, 6.69)	-1.66 (-1.76, -1.57)	-0.18 (-0.26, -0.09)
Hypertensive heart disease	13.08 (5.90, 26.76)	33.36 (14.33, 69.08)	9.11 (4.15, 18.20)	17.70 (6.64, 38.45)	22.04 (8.09, 47.48)	8.20 (3.12, 17.26)	-1.43 (-1.56, -1.30)	-0.36 (-0.42, -0.31)
Non-rheumatic valvular heart disease	0.20 (0.09, 0.35)	0.53 (0.23, 0.88)	1.18 (0.54, 1.95)	0.32 (0.15, 0.54)	0.40 (0.18, 0.68)	1.12 (0.52, 1.89)	-0.92 (-1.09, -0.75)	-0.19 (-0.25, -0.12)
Cardiomyopathy and myocarditis	0.62 (0.26, 1.08)	1.57 (0.65, 2.70)	0.97 (0.41, 1.68)	0.74 (0.29, 1.37)	0.92 (0.36, 1.68)	0.80 (0.32, 1.47)	-1.85 (-1.88, -1.81)	-0.69 (-0.92, -0.46)
Atrial fibrillation and flutter	1.02 (0.53, 1.65)	2.75 (1.44, 4.45)	2.50 (1.40, 3.71)	2.27 (1.25, 3.63)	2.85 (1.56, 4.57)	2.66 (1.55, 3.89)	0.13 (0.10, 0.15)	0.22 (0.19, 0.25)
Aortic aneurysm	0.47 (0.21, 0.81)	1.15 (0.51, 2.00)	2.26 (1.06, 3.66)	0.70 (0.35, 1.15)	0.85 (0.42, 1.40)	2.08 (1.05, 3.34)	-1.06 (-1.19, -0.93)	-0.29 (-0.40, -0.19)
Peripheral artery disease	0.10 (0.04, 0.19)	0.27 (0.11, 0.54)	1.22 (0.55, 2.08)	0.20 (0.09, 0.38)	0.25 (0.11, 0.48)	1.30 (0.60, 2.20)	-0.26 (-0.30, -0.22)	0.23 (0.19, 0.27)
Endocarditis	0.20 (0.10, 0.33)	0.45 (0.22, 0.74)	1.97 (0.99, 3.27)	0.28 (0.13, 0.50)	0.34 (0.15, 0.62)	1.55 (0.71, 2.69)	-0.92 (-1.07, -0.77)	-0.80 (-0.84, -0.76)
Other cardiovascular and circulatory diseases	1.50 (0.80, 2.43)	3.56 (1.94, 5.75)	2.34 (1.28, 3.67)	1.92 (1.04, 3.04)	2.33 (1.26, 3.69)	2.10 (1.16, 3.26)	-1.45 (-1.50, -1.40)	-0.36 (-0.46, -0.27)
Mental disorders	25.18 (11.43, 43.54)	44.18 (19.98, 76.61)	2.80 (1.31, 4.70)	27.16 (12.10, 48.35)	35.70 (15.89, 63.6)	2.29 (1.06, 3.89)	-0.74 (-0.75, -0.72)	-0.70 (-0.71, -0.69)
Idiopathic developmental intellectual disability	25.18 (11.43, 43.54)	44.18 (19.98, 76.61)	66.50 (35.59, 84.36)	27.16 (12.1, 48.35)	35.70 (15.89, 63.6)	61.94 (32.07, 80.16)	-0.74 (-0.75, -0.72)	-0.25 (-0.25, -0.24)
Diabetes and kidney diseases	6.23 (3.73, 9.08)	15.29 (9.19, 22.14)	1.29 (0.76, 1.88)	12.25 (7.08, 18.18)	15.02 (8.68, 22.26)	1.09 (0.62, 1.64)	-0.06 (-0.17, 0.04)	-0.57 (-0.67, -0.47)
Chronic kidney disease	6.23 (3.73, 9.08)	15.29 (9.19, 22.14)	3.16 (1.90, 4.63)	12.25 (7.08, 18.18)	15.02 (8.68, 22.26)	2.92 (1.70, 4.33)	-0.06 (-0.17, 0.04)	-0.28 (-0.36, -0.21)

Cause of DALYs

1990

2019

1990–2019

DALYs
No.×10⁵ (95% UI)

ASDR
per 100 000
(95%UI)

Age-standardized
PAF, %
No. (95%UI)

DALYs
No.×10⁵ (95% UI)

ASDR
per 100 000
(95%UI)

Age-standardized
PAF, %
No. (95%UI)

AAPC of
ASDR (95%CI)

AAPC of age-standardized
PAF (95%CI)

All causes

Both

160.25

(103.21, 221.68)

378.01

(240.55, 524.18)

0.76

(0.48, 1.05)

216.76

(138.13, 302.98)

267.52

(170.57, 373.44)

0.82

(0.53, 1.14)

-1.19

(-1.24, -1.14)

0.28

(0.23, 0.33)

Female

58.31

(34.51, 84.98)

260.52

(150.50, 383.12)

0.56

(0.33, 0.82)

80.43

(48.18, 117.28)

188.85

(113.07, 274.64)

0.62

(0.38, 0.90)

-1.12

(-1.19, -1.05)

0.36

(0.29, 0.44)

Male

101.94

(68.25, 136.87)

512.87

(339.34, 692.87)

0.95

(0.63, 1.28)

136.34

(88.81, 188.24)

357.56

(233.38, 493.30)

1.00

(0.67, 1.37)

-1.24

(-1.30, -1.18)

0.20

(0.15, 0.26)

Disease type

Cardiovascular diseases

128.85

(77.34, 186.47)

318.54

(190.85, 461.21)

4.50

(2.70, 6.45)

177.35

(104.88, 256.6)

216.80

(128.35, 314.82)

4.46

(2.67, 6.35)

-1.32

(-1.39, -1.25)

-0.04

(-0.16, 0.08)

Rheumatic heart disease

3.20

(1.69, 5.44)

7.18

(3.87, 12.16)

2.53

(1.40, 4.25)

2.14

(1.07, 3.73)

2.58

(1.28, 4.55)

1.95

(1.00, 3.42)

-3.46

(-3.58, -3.34)

-0.91

(-1.02, -0.80)

Ischemic heart disease

54.09

(31.78, 79.51)

134.35

(78.06, 199.09)

4.27

(2.50, 6.29)

83.69

(48.96, 124.49)

102.26

(59.74, 152.87)

4.56

(2.72, 6.68)

-0.94

(-1.01, -0.88)

0.22

(0.04, 0.40)

Stroke

54.37

(32.53, 79.52)

133.36

(80.09, 195.09)

4.88

(2.94, 7.03)

67.39

(39.12, 98.16)

81.97

(47.86, 119.11)

4.64

(2.73, 6.69)

-1.66

(-1.76, -1.57)

-0.18

(-0.26, -0.09)

Hypertensive heart disease

13.08

(5.90, 26.76)

33.36

(14.33, 69.08)

9.11

(4.15, 18.20)

17.70

(6.64, 38.45)

22.04

(8.09, 47.48)

8.20

(3.12, 17.26)

-1.43

(-1.56, -1.30)

-0.36

(-0.42, -0.31)

Non-rheumatic valvular heart disease

0.20

(0.09, 0.35)

0.53

(0.23, 0.88)

1.18

(0.54, 1.95)

0.32

(0.15, 0.54)

0.40

(0.18, 0.68)

1.12

(0.52, 1.89)

-0.92

(-1.09, -0.75)

-0.19

(-0.25, -0.12)

Cardiomyopathy and myocarditis

0.62

(0.26, 1.08)

1.57

(0.65, 2.70)

0.97

(0.41, 1.68)

0.74

(0.29, 1.37)

0.92

(0.36, 1.68)

0.80

(0.32, 1.47)

-1.85

(-1.88, -1.81)

-0.69

(-0.92, -0.46)

Atrial fibrillation and flutter

1.02

(0.53, 1.65)

2.75

(1.44, 4.45)

2.50

(1.40, 3.71)

2.27

(1.25, 3.63)

2.85

(1.56, 4.57)

2.66

(1.55, 3.89)

0.13

(0.10, 0.15)

0.22

(0.19, 0.25)

Aortic aneurysm

0.47

(0.21, 0.81)

1.15

(0.51, 2.00)

2.26

(1.06, 3.66)

0.70

(0.35, 1.15)

0.85

(0.42, 1.40)

2.08

(1.05, 3.34)

-1.06

(-1.19, -0.93)

-0.29

(-0.40, -0.19)

Peripheral artery disease

0.10

(0.04, 0.19)

0.27

(0.11, 0.54)

1.22

(0.55, 2.08)

0.20

(0.09, 0.38)

0.25

(0.11, 0.48)

1.30

(0.60, 2.20)

-0.26

(-0.30, -0.22)

0.23

(0.19, 0.27)

Endocarditis

0.20

(0.10, 0.33)

0.45

(0.22, 0.74)

1.97

(0.99, 3.27)

0.28

(0.13, 0.50)

0.34

(0.15, 0.62)

1.55

(0.71, 2.69)

-0.92

(-1.07, -0.77)

-0.80

(-0.84, -0.76)

Other cardiovascular and circulatory diseases

1.50

(0.80, 2.43)

3.56

(1.94, 5.75)

2.34

(1.28, 3.67)

1.92

(1.04, 3.04)

2.33

(1.26, 3.69)

2.10

(1.16, 3.26)

-1.45

(-1.50, -1.40)

-0.36

(-0.46, -0.27)

Mental disorders

25.18

(11.43, 43.54)

44.18

(19.98, 76.61)

2.80

(1.31, 4.70)

27.16

(12.10, 48.35)

35.70

(15.89, 63.6)

2.29

(1.06, 3.89)

-0.74

(-0.75, -0.72)

-0.70

(-0.71, -0.69)

Idiopathic developmental intellectual disability

25.18

(11.43, 43.54)

44.18

(19.98, 76.61)

66.50

(35.59, 84.36)

27.16

(12.1, 48.35)

35.70

(15.89, 63.6)

61.94

(32.07, 80.16)

-0.74

(-0.75, -0.72)

-0.25

(-0.25, -0.24)

Diabetes and kidney diseases

6.23

(3.73, 9.08)

15.29

(9.19, 22.14)

1.29

(0.76, 1.88)

12.25

(7.08, 18.18)

15.02

(8.68, 22.26)

1.09

(0.62, 1.64)

-0.06

(-0.17, 0.04)

-0.57

(-0.67, -0.47)

Chronic kidney disease

6.23

(3.73, 9.08)

15.29

(9.19, 22.14)

3.16

(1.90, 4.63)

12.25

(7.08, 18.18)

15.02

(8.68, 22.26)

2.92

(1.70, 4.33)

-0.06

(-0.17, 0.04)

-0.28

(-0.36, -0.21)

Note: DALYs, disability-adjusted life years; ASDR, age-standardized DALY rate; PAF, population attributable fraction; AAPC, average annual percentage change; UI, uncertainty interval; CI, confidence interval