Table 2.

Biomarker discoveries using metabolomics

Disease	Biomarker	Use	Ref
Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC)	3′-UMP, palmitoleic acid, palmitaldehyde, and isobutyl decanoate	Disease recurrence	[39]
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)	Leucine, valine, and tryptophan	Diagnostic biomarkers	[40]
Non- alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)	Glycocholic acid, Taurocholic acid, Phenylalanine, branched-chain amino-acids, Glutathione	Discrimination of steatosis, steatohepatitis and cirrhosis	[13]
Oral cancer	Pipecolate, Spermidine, Methionine, Tryptophan, Valine, Hypoxanthine, Trimethylamine N-oxide, Guanine, Guanosine, Taurine, Choline, Cadaverine, Threonine	Salivary biomarkers for oral cancer screening	[15]
Pancreatic cancer	1,5-Anhydo-d-glucitol	Diagnostic biomarker	[16]
Estrogen receptor negative breast cancer	Histidine, Glucose, Lactate, Tyrosine	Risk of disease recurrence	[17]
Colorectal cancer	Hexadecanedioic acid, 4-dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid, 2-pyrocatechuic acid, and Formylanthranilic acid	Screening and early detection using serum biomarkers	[41, 42]
Bladder cancer	Nɛ, Nɛ, Nɛ-trimethyllysine, N-acetyltryptophan, dopaquinone, leucine and hypoxanthine	Risk of disease recurrence	[20]
Sports related biomarkers	Glutamine, N-acetylglutamine, xanthine, beta-sitosterol, N2-acetyllysine, stearoyl-arachidonoyl-glycerol (18:0/20:4), N-acetylserine and 3–7-dimethylurate	Leukocyte telomere length prediction	[22]
	Arachidonic acid, branched-chain amino acids, plasminogens, phosphatidylcholines, phosphatidylethanolamines, Gamma-glutamyl amino acids and glutathione	Potential biomarker signatures for assessing health, performance, and recovery of elite athletes	[23]
	5alpha-androstan-3alpha,17alpha-diol monosulfate, androstenediol (3alpha, 17alpha) monosulfate and cortisol	Steroid profile difference in elite female players and non-athletes	[24]
Polycystic ovary syndrome	Hexosylceramide (d18:2/24:0), ceramide (d18.0/24.1) and serine	Predicting low birth weight	[25]
Insulin resistance and diabetes	Androsterone glucuronide, phenylalanine derivative, carboxyethylphenylalanine	Biomarkers associated with insulin resistance in lean/overweight females	[26]
	Glycerophosphoethanolamine, glycerophosphorylcholine and choline	Increased risk of obesity-associated insulin resistance	[27]
	Glutamate	Predictor of gestational diabetes mellitus	[30]
COVID-19	Tryptophan, kynurenine and 3-hydroxykynurenine	Prognostic markers	[33]
	A combination of d-fructose, citric acid and 2-palmitoyl-glycerol	Diagnostic biomarkers	[34]
	Palmitic (C16:0), docosapentaenoic (C22:5, DPA), and docosahexaenoic (C22:6, DHA) in diabetic patients palmitic, oleic (C18:1), and docosahexaenoic acids in hypertensive patients	Predicting disease progression	[36]
	Betaine and branched chain amino acids	Prognostic metabolic biomarkers of severity and mortality respectively	[37]