Table 2.

Effects of chronic exposure to air pollutant on the rate of cognitive declines.

Domain	Predictor	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3
		β (95% CI)	p	β (95% CI)	p	β (95% CI)	p
Language	CO × year	−0.28 (−0.67–0.10)	0.151	−0.28 (−0.67–0.10)	0.149	−0.29 (−0.67–0.10)	0.145
	NO2 × year	−3.58 (−8.53–1.37)	0.157	−3.65 (−8.57–1.30)	0.148	−3.65 (−8.57–1.30)	0.147
	SO2 × year	−10.18 (−62.92–42.42)	0.705	−8.56 (−61.13–43.97)	0.750	−8.33 (−60.84–44.22)	0.756
	PM10 × year	−5.54 (−13.83–2.74)	0.191	−5.55 (−13.82–2.72)	0.189	−5.54 (−13.80–2.73)	0.190
	PM2.5 × year	−12.63 (−28.48–3.39)	0.119	−12.67 (−28.48–3.30)	0.117	−12.73 (−28.54–3.23)	0.115
Visuospatial	CO × year	−0.23 (−1.02–0.56)	0.575	−0.21 (−1.01–0.57)	0.597	−0.21 (−1.00–0.57)	0.596
	NO2 × year	5.28 (−4.78–15.43)	0.306	5.15 (−4.84–15.33)	0.316	5.15 (−4.80–15.34)	0.315
	SO2 × year	14.53 (−91.92–122.50)	0.789	20.00 (−85.76–128.53)	0.711	19.69 (−85.70–127.97)	0.715
	PM10 × year	−8.18 (−25.07–8.62)	0.342	−8.18 (−25.10–8.49)	0.339	−8.25 (−25.17–8.39)	0.335
	PM2.5 × year	−32.42 (−64.61–0.67)	0.048	−32.06 (−64.40–0.79)	0.048	−32.24 (−64.72–1.06)	0.047
Memory	CO × year	−0.28 (−0.64–0.07)	0.116	−0.29 (−0.64–0.07)	0.114	−0.28 (−0.64–0.07)	0.116
	NO2 × year	−4.08 (−8.58–0.43)	0.078	−4.05 (−8.56–0.47)	0.080	−4.04 (−8.54–0.48)	0.081
	SO2 × year	−66.18 (−113.18–19.54)	0.006 1	−66.22 (−113.36–19.67)	0.006 1	−66.48 (−113.64–20.05)	0.006 1
	PM10 × year	−3.96 (−11.50–3.62)	0.305	−3.94 (−11.49–3.64)	0.307	−3.97 (−11.52–3.61)	0.304
	PM2.5 × year	6.65 (−7.41–20.84)	0.356	6.52 (−7.53–20.72)	0.365	6.46 (−7.59–20.66)	0.369
Executive	CO × year	0.01 (−0.53–0.55)	0.974	0.01 (−0.53–0.56)	0.969	0.01 (−0.53–0.56)	0.971
	NO2 × year	1.40 (−5.55–8.34)	0.693	1.38 (−5.57–8.32)	0.698	1.38 (−5.57–8.32)	0.697
	SO2 × year	−25.94 (−97.26–45.63)	0.477	−24.47 (−95.91–47.40)	0.503	−24.40 (−95.79–47.46)	0.504
	PM10 × year	0.19 (−11.39–11.81)	0.975	0.21 (−11.36–11.85)	0.971	0.22 (−11.35–11.85)	0.971
	PM2.5 × year	−2.92 (−24.71–19.15)	0.790	−3.15 (−25.05–18.93)	0.773	−3.16 (−25.07–18.91)	0.773

Data represent the results of linear mixed model analysis for longitudinal cognitive scores using air pollutants, year, and the interaction term between air pollutants and year (air pollutants × year) as predictors. Model 1 was adjusted for age, sex, education, APOE4 carrier status, and baseline CDR. Model 2: model 1 + further adjusted for the occupational history, insurance type, smoking and alcohol history, and BMI. Model 3: model 2 + further adjusted for comorbidities including hypertension, dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, and stroke.

APOE4, apolipoprotein E ε4; BMI, body mass index; CDR, Clinical Dementia Rating®; CO, carbon monoxide; NO₂, nitrogen dioxide; PM, particulate matter; SO₂, sulfur dioxide.

¹ Significant after multiple comparison corrections across five air pollutants using the false discovery rate method.