Table 4.
Studies Measuring Perceived Risk of Developing Diabetes Within Broader Studies (n = 80)
| Author (year) | Constructa Subconstruct |
# items (α) | Response optionsb Scoring |
Source(s) for scale/item(s) | Guiding theory, model, or framework |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Single item | |||||
| Polley (1997) | Perceived risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: extremely unlikely to extremely likely | Melamed (1996);130 Ransford (1996)131 | Health Belief Model, Protection Motivation Theory |
| Pierce (2000) | Perceived risk | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: very likely to not at all likely | – | – |
| Montgomery (2003) | Comparative perceived risk | 1 | Scale 0–100: not at all likely to extremely likely | – | – |
| Walker (2003) | Perceived risk | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: almost no risk to high risk | – | – |
| Kemple (2005) | Perceived risk affect | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: very worried to not at all worried | Oregon BRFSS132 | – |
| DiLorenzo (2006) | Perceived lifetime risk | 1 | Scale 0–100%: not at all likely to extremely likely | – | Testing own conceptual model |
| Hivert (2009) | Perceived risk | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: no risk to high risk | RPS-DD26 | – |
| Pinelli (2009) | Perceived risk | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: no risk to high risk | RPS-DD26 | – |
| Wang (2009) | Comparative perceived risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: much lower than average to much higher than average | Weinstein (1980);133 Weinstein (1982);134 Woloshin (1999)135 | – |
| Zlot (2009) | Perceived risk affect | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: very worried to not at all worried | Oregon BRFSS136 | – |
| Acheson (2010) | Comparative perceived risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: much lower than average to much higher than average | Weinstein (1980);133 Weinstein (1982)134 | – |
| Messier (2010) | Perceived risk | 1 | 4-point scale: n/a | Janz (2002)137 | Health Belief Model |
| Bassett (2011) | Absolute perceived risk | 1 | 7-point Likert scale: very unlikely to very likely | Weinsten (1994);138 Milne (2002)139 | – |
| Darlow (2012) | Comparative perceived risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: a lot less likely to a lot more likely | – | – |
| Diaz (2012) | Perceived risk | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: almost no risk to high risk | RPS-DM140 | Health Belief Model |
| Dorman (2012) | Comparative Perceived risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: much lower than average to much higher than average | – | Health Belief Model, Theory of Planned Behavior |
| Siaki (2012) | Perceived lifetime risk | 1 | Scale 0–100, 10-point increments: low to high | Brewer (2004);112 Christian (2005)141 | – |
| Wijdenes (2013) | Comparative perceived risk | 1 | 7-point Likert scale: a lot lower to a lot higher | – | – |
| de Groot (2014) | Perceived risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: likely to unlikely | – | Health Belief Model, Theory of Planned Behavior and Reasoned Action, Social Cognitive Theory, Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, Precaution Adoption Process Model |
| Hovick (2014) | Perceived lifetime risk | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: not likely to definitely | – | – |
| Kolb (2014) | Comparative perceived risk | 1 | n/a | Weymiller (2007);142 Walker (2007)140 | Transtheoretical model |
| Nishigaki (2014) | Perceived risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: very unlikely to very likely | – | Health Belief Model |
| Willems (2014) | Perceived risk | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: SD to SA | Symptom Risk Questionnaire143 | – |
| Fukuoka (2015) | Comparative perceived risk | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: SA to SD | RPS-DD26 | – |
| Guess (2015) | Perceived risk | 1 | 4-point Likert scales: no risk to high risk | RPS-DD26 | – |
| Piccinino (2015) | Perceived risk | 1 | n/a | – | – |
| Godino (2016) | Perceived lifetime risk | 1 | Scale 0–100: certain not to happen to certain to happen | – | – |
| Joiner (2016b) | Perceived risk | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: almost no risk to high risk | RPS-DD26 | – |
| Kullgren (2016) | Perceived risk | 1 | n/a | Adriaanse (2003);23 Adriaanse (2008)30 | – |
| Mongiello (2016a) | Comparative perceived risk | 1 | n/a | RPS-DD26 | – |
| Mongiello (2016b) | Comparative perceived risk | 1 | n/a | Clarke (2000)144 | Health Belief Model |
| Vornanen (2016) | Perceived lifetime risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: I have diabetes, very low to very high |
Finish National FINRISK Survey |
– |
| Chopra (2017) | Comparative perceived risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: much lower than general population to much higher than general population | HINTS145 | – |
| Wilkie (2017) | Perceived risk | 1 | n/a | NHANES | Andersen’s Behavioral Model |
| Brawarsky (2018) | Comparative risk | 1 | 3-point scale: more likely, less likely, about as likely to get | – | – |
| Silarova (2018) | Perceived lifetime risk | 1 | Scale 0–100: certain not to happen to certain to happen | Diefenbach (1993)146 | Protection Motivation Theory; Common Sense Model |
| Skøt (2018) | Perceived lifetime risk | 1 | 7-point Likert scale: extremely unlikely to almost certain | – | – |
| Yang (2018) | Perceived risk | 1 | Dichotomous: Yes, no | – | – |
| Abshire (2019) | Perceived risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: very low to very high | – | Health Belief Model |
| Agarwal (2019) | Perceived risk affect | 1 | 7-point Likert scale: not at all concerned to extremely concerned | Health Belief Model Scale;147 Brief Illness Perception Questionnaire148 | Health Belief Model |
| Calhoun (2019) | Perceived risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: definitely will get to definitely will not get diabetes | Brief Illness Perception Questionnaire148 | Health Belief Model |
| Daack-Hirsch (2019) | Perceived risk affect | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: Never to almost every day | – | Familial risk perception personalization model |
| Guo (2019) | Perceived risk | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: no risk to high risk | RPS-DD26 | – |
| Heidemann (2019) | Perceived risk | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: almost no risk to high risk | Kim (2007)149 | – |
| Hsueh (2019) | Perceived risk | 1 | Categorical: Yes, no, I don’t know | NHANES | – |
| Murillo (2019) | Perceived risk | 1 | Dichotomous: Yes, no | NHANES | – |
| McPhee (2020) | Perceived risk | 1 | 7-point Likert scale: very unlikely to very likely | Bassett (2011)87 | Protection Motivation Theory |
| Vornanen (2021) | Perceived absolute lifetime risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: very low to very high | Godino (2014)150 | – |
| Fukuoka (2022) | Comparative perceived risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: much less likely to much more likely | – | – |
| Halmesvaara (2022) | Perceived risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: very small to very large | – | – |
| Multiple items, composite score | |||||
| Blue (2007) | Perceived risk | 3 | Champion (1999)151 | Theory of Planned Behavior | |
| - Likelihood | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: SA to SD | |||
| - Risk in next few years | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: SA to SD | |||
| - Lifetime risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: SA to SD | |||
| Not specified | |||||
| Pijl (2009) | Perceived risk | 3 (0.88) | Alssema (2008)152 | - | |
| - 5-year risk | 1 | 7-point Likert scales: very likely to very unlikely | |||
| - Based on feelings, chances of developing in 5 years | 1 | 7-point Likert scale: very low to very high | |||
| Comparative risk | 1 | 7-point Likert scale: a low lower to a lot higher | |||
| Mean of items | |||||
| Pinelli (2010) | Perceived risk | All: 4-point Likert scales: n/a | RPS-DD26 | – | |
| - Comparative disease risk | 15 | Not specified | |||
| - Environmental risk | 9 | ||||
| - Optimistic bias | 2 | ||||
| - Personal control | 4 | ||||
| - Worry | 2 | Symptom Risk Questionnaire143 | – | ||
| Claassen (2011) | Perceived risk | 2 (r = 0.93) | 7-point Likert scales: very unlikely to very likely | ||
| - 10-year risk | 7-point Likert scale: very low to very high | ||||
| - Based on feelings, chances of developing in 10 years | |||||
| Mean of items | |||||
| Della (2011) | Perceived risk | 6 (0.70) | 5-point Likert scale: disagree a lot to agree a lot | Nijhof (2008)125 | Health Belief Model |
| Mean of items | |||||
| Lavielle (2014) | Perceived risk | 2 | Weinsten (2000);153 Aggleton (1994)154 | – | |
| - Likelihood | 1 | Visual analog scale 1–10: not at all likely to likely | |||
| - Severity | 1 | Visual analog scale 1–10: not at all serious to serious | |||
| Sum of items | |||||
| Reyes –Velazquez (2015) | Perceived lifetime risk | 3 (0.80) | 4-point ordinal: great risk, some risk, not sure, no risk | Covello (2002)155 | – |
| - Based on lifestyle | 3-point Likert: very concerned to not concerned at all | ||||
| - Based on family background | |||||
| - Concern | |||||
| 4-point ordinal: great risk, some risk, not sure, no risk | |||||
| Not specified | |||||
| Basilio (2016) | Perceived risk | 2 (0.95) | Aiken (1995);156 Dolan (1997);157 Gerend (2004)158 | – | |
| - Chances of diabetes | 6-point Likert scale: very low chance to very high chance | ||||
| - Susceptibility | 6-point Likert scale: not at all susceptible to very susceptible | ||||
| Mean of items | |||||
| Simonds (2017) | Perceived risk | 2 (0.81) | All: Visual analog scale 0–100% | – | Risk Perception Attitude |
| - Lifetime risk | 1 | Sum across items | |||
| - Risk in next year | 1 | ||||
| Mirzaei-Alavije (2019) | Perceived risk | 4 (0.74) |
5-point Likert scale: SD to SA Mean of items |
Stuifbergen (2000);159 Berg (2011);160 Tamirat (2014);161 Tan (2004);162 Pinto (2006);163 Patino (2005);164 Ayele (2012);165 Chao (2005);166 Rickheim (2002)167 | – |
| Pelullo (2019) | Perceived risk | 32 | All: 4-point Likert scales: SD to SA | RPS-DD26 | – |
| - Optimistic bias | 2 | Composite of means of each subscale | |||
| - Personal control | 4 | ||||
| - Worry | 2 | ||||
| - Comparative disease risk | 15 | ||||
| - Comparative environmental risk | 9 | ||||
| Daack-Hirsch (2020) | Perceived risk | 12 (0.68) | All: 4-point Likert scales: don’t know, no effect on risk, decreases risk, increases risk | PRF-T2DM19 | Familial Risk Perception Personalization Model |
| - Personal & behavioral risk factors | 6 | Sum of all items | |||
| - Environmental risk factors | 6 | ||||
| Multiple items, no composite score | |||||
| Adriaanse (2003) | Perceived risk | 2 | 11-point scale 0–100%; 6-point scale: negligible to very high | Symptom Risk Questionnaire143 | – |
| - Risk | 1 | 4-point scale: not a serious disease to a very serious disease | |||
| - Seriousness | |||||
| Johnson (2006) | Perceived risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: n/a | Narayan (2003)168 | – |
| - Lifetime risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: much higher to much lower | |||
| - 3-year risk | |||||
| Adriaanse (2008) | Perceived risk | 2 | 11-point scale 0–100%; 6-point scale: negligible to very high | Symptom Risk Questionnaire143 | – |
| - Risk | 1 | 4-point scale: not a serious disease to a very serious disease | |||
| - Seriousness | |||||
| Harle (2008) | Perceived risk | 1 | Probability scale 0–100 in 5-point increments: n/a | Walker (2003)26 | – |
| - Absolute | 1 | 7-point Likert scale: n/a | |||
| - Relative | |||||
| Paddison (2009) | Perceived risk | Weinstein (2009)169 | – | ||
| - Personal | 1 | Scale 0–100%: with 10-point intervals | |||
| - Comparative | 1 | 5-point scale: much lower to much higher | |||
| Dickerson (2012) | Perceived risk | – | – | ||
| - 10-year risk | 1 | 5-point ordinal scale: no chance to certain to occur | |||
| - Lifetime risk | 1 | 5-point ordinal scale: no chance to certain to occur | |||
| Heideman (2012) | Perceived risk | Revised Illness Perception Questionnaire;170 Claassen (2010)171 | Health Action Process Approach | ||
| - Causal beliefs | 5 | 5-point Likert scale: definitely not to definitely | |||
| - Comparative risk | 1 | 7-point Likert scale: a low lower to a lot higher | |||
| - | - Risk estimation | 1 | 7-point Likert scale: very small to very big | ||
| Godino (2014) | Perceived Risk | Diefenbach (1993);146 Lipkus (2000)172 | - | ||
| - Absolute | 4 | ||||
| - Comparative | 2 | ||||
| Scale 0–100: certain to happen to certain not to happen; 5-point Likert scale: very likely to very unlikely | |||||
| 5-point Likert scale: much less likely to much more likely | – | ||||
| Winter (2014) | Perceived risk | Hurd (2009);173 Manski (2004)174 | - | ||
| - 5-year risk | 1 | Scale 0–100: n/a | |||
| - Lifetime risk | 1 | Scale 0–100: n/a | |||
| Amuta (2015) | Perceived risk | 3 (0.85) | – | – | |
| - Comparative risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: much lower to much higher | |||
| - 5-year | 1 | Scale 0–100: no chance to definitely will get | |||
| - Lifetime | 1 | Scale 0–100: no chance to definitely will get | |||
| Vlaar (2015) | Perceived risk | Claassen (2012)175 | Common Sense Model | ||
| - Causal beliefs | 12 | 3-point scale: n/a | |||
| - Susceptibility | 3 (0.63) | 5-point Likert scale: n/a | |||
| - Controllability | 5-point Likert scale: n/a | ||||
| Kharono (2017) | Perceived risk | All: 5-point Likert scale: SA to SD | – | – | |
| - Comparative risk | 1 | ||||
| - Worry | 1 | ||||
| - Perceived threat | 1 | ||||
| Kowall (2017) | Perceived risk | – | – | ||
| - Present moment risk | 1 | 6-point Likert scale: negligible to very high | |||
| - Risk in upcoming years | 1 | 3-point scale: Yes, No, I don’t know | |||
| - Seriousness | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: not a serious disease to a very serious disease | |||
| Wu (2017) | Perceived risk | Leventhal (1992);176 Marteau (2006)177 | Common Sense Model | ||
| - Lifetime risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: never will get to definitely will get diabetes | |||
| - Seriousness | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: SD to SA | |||
| Paige (2018) | Perceived risk | Witte (1994)178 | – | ||
| - Comparative risk | 1 | 4-point Guttman scale: almost no chance to high chance | |||
| - Personal risk | 1 | 5-point Likert scale: SD to SA | |||
| Orom (2018) | Perceived risk | All: 4-point Likert: not at all likely to very likely | HINTS | – | |
| - Absolute risk | 1 | ||||
| - Comparative risk | 1 | ||||
| Shaak (2018) | Perceived risk | RPS-DD26 | – | ||
| - Optimistic bias | 2 | 4-point Likert scales: SA to SD | |||
| - Personal control | 4 | 4-point Likert scales: SA to SD | |||
| - Worry | 2 | 4-point Likert scales: SA to SD | |||
| - Diabetes risk knowledge | 11 | 3-point ordinal: Increases risk, has no effect on risk, decreases risk | |||
| Mean of items for each subscale, except risk knowledge; Sum of diabetes risk knowledge items | |||||
| Riley (2019) | Perceived risk | ||||
| - Absolute risk | 1 | 4-point Likert scale: not at all likely to very likely, I don’t know | HINTS | – | |
| - | - Comparative risk | 1 | 3-point Likert scale: less likely to more likely, I don’t know | ||
aWe used authors’ labels for constructs and subconstructs
bSA strongly agree, SD strongly disagree