Figure 1.

Two main methods for generation of liver organoids. (A) Establishment of liver organoids from adult liver tissues. Healthy liver cells or liver cancer cells can be obtained via surgical resection and biopsy. Upon seeded into Matrigel with different culture components, cells assemble themselves into organoids. Liver tumoroids can be induced from liver organoids by overexpression of c-myc. (B) Establishment of liver organoids from stem cells. Both of ESCs and iPSCs can be utilized to generate liver organoids through three major steps, endodermal differentiation, hepatic specification and hepatic maturation & liver organoid formation. Each step contains several key factors. EGF, epidermal growth factor; FGF, fibroblast growth factor; HGF, hepatocyte growth factor; TGFβ, transforming growth factor beta; BMP, bone morphogenetic protein; FBS, fetal bovine serum.