TABLE 1.

Transformation timeline of ASM from research to industry.

Decade	ASM type	Functions and industrial sectors
1970s	Surgical waste or discarded skin	Developed for medical research to study skin diseases and drug and cosmetic effects (Araújo et al., 2014).
Early 1980s		As ethics-centered actions spearhead, the scientific community begins searching for alternative models to reduce animal experiments (Silva and Tamburic, 2022).
1980s and 1990s	3D-reconstructed skin model adoption	Cosmetic and personal care industry for safety and efficacy testing of new products, reducing the need for animal testing (Hayden et al., 2015).
Since early 2000s	Ex vivo skin models, such as skin explants, and starting skin-on-a-chip development	Pharmaceutical industry started using ASM for drug safety and efficacy testing, reducing reliance on animal testing and providing more accurate results (Mathes et al., 2014; Abaci et al., 2015).
Since early 2010s	3D-reconstructed skin models, ex vivo models	Medical device research and development, mainly for biocompatibility tests (Casas et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2021).
Late 2010s and early 2020s	Skin cells, 3D reconstructed skin models, skin-on-a-chip	• Additional industries, such as the chemical industry, have started to use ASM for toxicity testing, further reducing reliance on animal testing and improving accuracy (Mehling et al., 2022).
		• High-throughput model implementation, mainly in pharma and health-tech (Lukács et al., 2019).