Table 1.

Physicochemical characteristics, advantages, and limitations of some alternative proteins.

Alternative proteins		Nutritional characteristics	Advantages	Limitations	References
Plant-based protein	Soy	•Protein: 40% •Crude fat: 20%. •Carbohydrate: 33–35%. •PDCAAS: 90–99%.	•Effect against chronic diseases and cancer. •Good emulsifying and water and oil absorption capacity. •High lysine and isoflavone concentration.	•Off-flavors due to lipoxygenases content. •Low in methionine and cysteine. •High allergenicity.	[11,19,47]
	Pea	•Protein: 23–30%. •Crude fat: 1.5–2%. •Carbohydrate: 35–40%. •Fiber (%): 60–65%. •PDCAAS: 73–89%.	•Gluten-free. •Low allergenicity. •High levels of lysine and a good source of antioxidants.	•Low levels of methionine and cysteine.	[138]
	Coconut	•Protein: 3.6–5.5%. •Crude fat: 20–44%. •Carbohydrate: 6–15%. •Fiber (%): 2–9%. •Total EAA: 71–77%. •PDCAAS: 86–94%.	•High content of monounsaturated fatty acids.	•Increase the HDL (high-density lipoprotein) levels. •High saturated fats. •Low in methionine, isoleucine, threonine, and tryptophan.	[44,139]
	Almond	•Protein: 21%. •Crude fat: 49%. •Carbohydrate: 21%. •Fiber: 12.5%. •PDCAAS: 32–34%.	•Source of alpha-tocopherol and manganese. •Low in calories.	•High allergenicity limits its use as a beverage. •Low protein solubility at acidic pH.	[11,44]
	Oat	•Protein: 9–20% •Crude fat: 5–9%. •Fiber: 2–8%. •PDCAAS: 41–60%.	•Gluten-free. •Therapeutic benefits. •High fiber content. •Hypocholesterolemia properties. •Source of antioxidants and polyphenols.	•Use limited in liquid or semi-solid products because of their high starch content. •Limited lysine content. •Low foaming capacity due to high lipid content. •Low protein solubility at acidic pH.	[11,52,126]
	Rice	•Protein: 7–76%. •Crude fat: 0.2–20%. •Carbohydrate: 18–76%. •Fiber (%): 0.06–13%. •Total EAA: 41%. •PDCAAS: 90%.	•High levels of leucine, phenylalanine, and methionine.	•Use limited in liquid or semi-solid products because of their high starch content. •Low protein content. •Limited lysine content. •Emulsion stability is very low due to the high starch content. •Low protein solubility at acidic pH.	[11,140,141]
Single-Cell Protein	Algae	•Protein: 51–93%. •Crude fat: 4–22%. •Carbohydrate: 1–17%. •Nucleic acid: 3–8%.	•Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. •Sources of vitamins and minerals. •High levels of leucine, lysine, and valine). •Low allergenicity.	•Unpleasant flavor (fishy flavor) and odor. •Non-homogeneous appearance. •High nucleic acid content. •Intense color. •Low efficiency and high production costs. •High cellulose content.	[5,21,70,84,142]
	Bacteria	•Protein: 50–83.5%. •Crude fat: 1–10%. •Carbohydrate: 6.83%. •Nucleic acid: 8–14%.	•High growth rate. •Highest methionine content.	•High nucleic acid. •Small cell sizes can potentially hinder purification steps. •Endotoxins content. •High risk of contamination.	[21,84,86]
	Fungal (filamentous fungi and yeast)	•Protein: 30–60%. •Crude fat: 2–3%. •Carbohydrate: 38–54%. •Fiber (%): 3–4%. •PDCAAS (%): 94–95%. •Nucleic acid: 3–12%.	•High protein content. •More resistant to shear stress. •Rapid growth. •Insulinotropic protein. •High B vitamin content. •High lysine content.	•Mycotoxins content •Cytotoxicity •Low methionine content.	[21,92,143]
Recombinant protein		Unknown	•Therapeutic properties. •Effective bioprocess optimization.	•Posttranslational modifications. •Co-secretion of proteases. •Potential functionality changes. •Low yield. •Mutations.	[13,25,144]

*%Protein: g/100g of dry basis.