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. 2023 Jun 21;14:3691. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-39360-1

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — a, d Schematic in (a) [(d)] showing mechanism of erasure and conversion of type-I (up) [type-I (down)] polarons. For negative sample bias (equivalent to the tip positively biased), top Cl anions move upward and the Co cations move downward, leaving the interlayer distance between Co and top (bottom)-layer Cl stretched (squeezed). This would effectively make the potential for the excess electron on the Co-up (Co-down) site increased (decreased), as depicted with black (orange) dashed line. This results the excess electron on the Co-up (Co-down) site to empty (occupy). The excess electron transfers to the tip (substrate) corresponds to erasure of the type-I (up) [type-I (down)] polaron. The excess electron transfers to the Co-down (triple-Co) site corresponds to conversion from type-I (up) to type-I (down) (type-II) polaron. b, c Schematic in (b) [(c)] showing mechanism of creation and conversion of type-I (up) [type-I (down)] polarons. Note that the red dashed arrows in (c, d) represent possible polaron conversion routes that are not realized in experiments yet.