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. 2023 Feb 14;6(2):e1248. doi: 10.1002/jsp2.1248

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© 2023 The Authors. JOR Spine published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Orthopaedic Research Society.

This is an open access article under the terms of the http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non‐commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.

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Socioeconomic status and race distinguish clusters. Cluster 3 had the lowest socioeconomic status and were majority Black or African American, while Cluster 1 had the highest socioeconomic status and were majority white or Caucasian. Cluster 2 was an intermediate. (A) Annual income (V00INCOME). (B) Education (V00EDCV). (C) Type of healthcare (V00HLTHCAR). (D) Race (P02RACE). Grad., graduate; HMO, health maintenance organization; LBP, low back pain; UMAP, Uniform manifold approximation and projection.