Table 1.

Studies on the relationship between sport and social outcomes

Social outcomes
1. Author 2. Study design	Aim	Sport 1. Mode 2. Structure	Conditions/comparison	1. Sample size (n) 2. Sex ratio 3. Mean age (SD)/age range	Psychological outcome/s and measure	Key findings
1. Brinkley, 2017 [34] 2. Quantitative Quasi-experimental Non-randomized	To examine the impact of participating in 12-week workplace team sport on VO2 max, and of individual, social group, and organizational health	1. Rounders, netball, basketball, soccer, cricket, and handball 2. Team	Intervention: 12 × weekly lunchtime moderate-intensity team sport sessions in an indoor sports hall (10 min warm-up, 40 min of sport) Control: normal work conditions	1. 48 2. 28 males: 20 females aged 24 to 64 Intervention n = 28; mean = 39.59 (9.11) Control 1. n = 20; mean = 40.75 (11.92)	Social cohesion Sub-scales from the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire-II Interpersonal communication (relationships with colleagues) Climate uniformity Interpersonal relationships (with superiors) Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire-II-II	There were significant improvements in interpersonal communication favoring the intervention group, though there were no other significant effects
1. Dore, 2018 [35] 2. Quantitative-longitudinal (6 months) cross-sectional	This study examined the associations between the context of physical activity (PA) is undertaken (team sports, informal group, individual PA), and positive mental health, anxiety symptoms and depressive symptoms. It also investigated whether social connectedness or PA volume mediate these associations	1. Team sports 2. Team	Team sports vs. informal group PA vs. individual PA	1. 1446 2. 602 males: 844 females 3. mean age = 18.4 (2.4)	Social connectedness in PA Relatedness to Others in Physical Activity Scale (ROPAS)	Relative to those who engaged in individual PA, being active in informal group PA or sports team was associated with higher levels of social connectedness and higher moderate-vigorous PA volume. In mediation analysis, the hypothesis that PA context influences mental health indirectly through social connectedness was not confirmed
1. Marlier, 2015 [36] 2. Quantitative cross-sectional	The study aimed to uncover how sport participation, physical activity, social capital, and mental health are interrelated	1. Sport participation-organized and non-organized 2. Team and individual	Examined how sport participation, total physical activity, social capital, and mental health are interrelated	1. 414 2. – 3. age range 18 to 56 years	Social capital (individual, and community) evaluated using a scale based on the ‘social capital community benchmark survey’ Thematic analysis (interview)	No direct associations were found between sport participation and community social capital (or individual social capital Individual social capital (but not community social capital) had a direct association with mental health. A significant indirect association of community social capital with mental health was discovered through individual social capital (i.e., individual social capital partially mediates the relation between community social capital and mental health)
1. McGraw, 2018 [37] 2. Qualitative	To study how NFL players and their family members characterize the impact of an NFL career on the mental and emotional health of NFL players	1. NFL (American football) 2. Team	Includes both current and former NFL players, and family members of these players	1. 25 (23 former and 2 current) players, 27 family members (88.9% wife; 3.7% parent; and 7.4% were 'other' (child, sibling) 2. All male 3.Age not mentioned	Social isolation Thematic analysis (interview)	The players and their families noted concerns related to making and keeping social connections with people outside of the NFL; isolation due to physical size, celebrity status, team roster turnover; racial, socioeconomic, and cultural differences among players; loss of their social connection with the team and teammates through practices and games. Of note is the paradoxical situation that although football is a team sport, individual players can feel very much alone due to the nature and structure of the sport
1. Mickelsson, 2020 [38] 2. Quantitative—longitudinal (5 months)	The current study sought to explore how mixed martial-arts (MMA) and Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) affect deviant and socially desirable traits among adolescents and young adults who were new to the sports and how individuals predisposed to certain traits may be more inclined to train in one sport than another	Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ)	Jiu-jitsu vs mixed-martial arts	1. 113 2. 105 males: 8 females 3. No age data	Aggression Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ) Pro-social behavior Pro-socialness Scale for Adults (PSA) Self-control Self-Control Scale (SCS) Criminal behavior (frequency) Total Delinquent Acts Measure (TDAM)	MMA practitioners slightly increased their levels of aggression, BJJ practitioners reduced theirs. Both MMA and BJJ increased self-control and pro-social behavior; and individuals who sought out to practice MMA were more predisposed to having higher levels of aggression. BJJ practitioners developed more pro-social behaviour and reduced aggression compared to MMA practitioners; but there was no significant interaction between self-control and sport as self-control improved among all practitioners. No interaction between sport and crime frequency was found, with both groups reducing criminal behavior moderately (but low baseline scores)
1. Purcell, 2020 [39] 2. Quantitative cross-sectional	The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence and correlates of mental health symptoms in a representative, national sample of elite athletes and to compare rates against published community norms	1. Elite athletes (no singular sport) 2. Not specified	Community rates of psychological variables; 'published community norms'	1. 749 2. 344 males 3. mean age = 24.6 (sd = 6.9)	Social dysfunction Subscale of the GHQ 28	There was no relationship between social dysfunction and sport participation
1. Thorpe, 2014 [40] 2. Qualitative	The aim of the study was to understand the impact of an Aboriginal community sporting team and its environment on the social, emotional, and physical wellbeing of young Aboriginal men	1. Australian Rules Football 2. Team	–	1. 14 2. All men 3. Age not provided	Mental well-being Social, emotional, and physical wellbeing impact (4 semi structured interview; 3 focus groups)	Some respondents felt social and community aspects of participating were just as important to players as individual health benefits gained from participation. Participants felt a sense of ownership and belonging when playing with an Aboriginal sports team. The club was also a place they felt safe and comfortable