Table 3.

The impact of timing (before vs during COVID-19 pandemic) on the prevalence of clinically significant symptoms of depression (EPDS ≥13) during pregnancy and the postpartum period, adjusting for sociodemographic, obstetric, and health confounders.

Pregnancy	β	Wald	p	OR	95% CI
Step 1
Not married/cohabiting1 (ref. married/cohabiting)	0.01	0.01	0.948	0.99	0.67–1.46
Risk pregnancy2 (ref. normal pregnancy)	0.25	2.10	0.147	0.78	0.56–1.09
Foreign (ref. native)	0.66	9.70	0.002	1.93	1.28–2.92
Unemployed or other3 (ref. employed)	0.48	10.12	0.001	1.62	1.20–2.18
≤ 9 years of education (ref. higher education4)	0.21	0.94	0.332	0.81	0.53–1.24
10–12 years of education (ref. higher education4)	0.22	1.69	0.193	1.24	0.90–1.72
Any mental health problem ever in life (ref. no)	0.81	30.38	< 0.001	0.45	0.34–0.60
≤ 24 years old (ref. >33 years old)	0.16	0.37	0.541	1.17	0.71–1.93
25–33 years old (ref. >33 years old)	−0.18	1.10	0.294	0.84	0.60–1.17
Step 2
Not married/cohabiting1 (ref. married/cohabiting)	0.29	1.76	0.185	1.33	0.87–2.03
Risk pregnancy2 (ref. normal pregnancy)	0.04	0.06	0.814	0.96	0.68–1.36
Foreign (ref. native)	0.81	13.06	< 0.001	2.25	1.45–3.48
Unemployed or other3 (ref. employed)	0.28	3.22	0.073	1.33	0.97–1.81
≤ 9 years of education (ref. higher education4)	0.82	10.30	< 0.001	2.27	1.38–3.75
10–12 years of education (ref. higher education4)	0.55	9.77	0.002	1.74	1.23–2.46
Any mental health problem ever in life (ref. no)	0.73	22.82	< 0.001	0.48	0.36–0.65
≤ 24 years old (ref. >33 years old)	0.32	1.45	0.228	1.38	0.82–2.34
25–33 years old (ref. >33 years old)	−0.06	0.12	0.725	0.94	0.67–1.33
During COVID-19 pandemic (ref. before)	1.60	81.35	< 0.001	0.20	0.14–0.29
Early pregnancy5 (ref. late pregnancy6)	0.36	4.91	0.027	0.70	0.51–0.96
Postpartum	β	Wald	p	OR	95% CI
Step 1
Not married/cohabiting1 (ref. married/cohabiting)	0.06	0.06	0.807	0.94	0.57–1.56
Risk pregnancy2 (ref. normal pregnancy)	0.42	5.54	0.019	1.52	1.07–2.16
Foreign (ref. native)	0.54	4.84	0.028	1.71	1.06–2.77
Unemployed or other3 (ref. employed)	0.26	1.38	0.240	0.77	0.50–1.19
≤ 9 years of education (ref. higher education4)	0.95	12.13	< 0.001	0.39	0.23–0.66
10–12 years of education (ref. higher education4)	0.43	4.99	0.026	0.65	0.44–0.95
Any mental health problem ever in life (ref. no)	0.95	33.28	< 0.001	0.39	0.28–0.53
≤ 24 years old (ref. >33 years old)	0.54	2.70	0.100	1.72	0.90–3.27
25–33 years old (ref. >33 years old)	0.19	1.00	0.317	1.21	0.84–1.74
Step 2
Not married/cohabiting1 (ref. married/cohabiting)	0.35	1.56	0.212	1.42	0.82–2.44
Risk pregnancy2 (ref. normal pregnancy)	0.18	0.94	0.332	1.20	0.83–1.74
Foreign (ref. native)	0.70	7.03	0.008	2.01	1.20–3.36
Unemployed or other3 (ref. employed)	0.14	0.36	0.547	0.87	0.55–1.38
≤ 9 years of education (ref. higher education4)	0.11	0.12	0.734	1.12	0.60–2.09
10–12 years of education (ref. higher education4)	0.13	0.43	0.513	0.87	0.59–1.31
Any mental health problem (ref. no)	0.85	24.04	< 0.001	0.43	0.30–0.60
≤ 24 years old (ref. >33 years old)	0.84	5.71	0.017	2.32	1.16–4.61
25–33 years old (ref. >33 years old)	0.41	4.34	0.037	1.50	1.03–2.21
During COVID-19 pandemic (ref. before)	1.97	89.76	< 0.001	7.14	4.75–10.72
Early postpartum7 (ref. late postpartum8)	0.09	0.25	0.616	0.92	0.65–1.29

Notes. COVID-19, coronavirus disease; EPDS, Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale; OR, odds ratio; CI, Confidence interval¹;Includes single/separated/divorced/widow²;Risk pregnancy includes age over 40 or gestational diabetes or hypertension or short cervix or other clinical condition³;Other includes student/housewife; ⁴bachelor, master's degree or postgraduate diploma; ⁵first and second pregnancy trimester; ⁶third pregnancy trimester; ⁷until 12 weeks after childbirth⁸; >12 weeks after childbirth.

Models adjusted for age, country of birth, education, marital status, employment status, history of mental health problems, parity, and risk pregnancy.