Table 1.
Prevalence of under-5 severe child undernutrition in context of socio-demographic factors in Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal.
| Characteristics | Bangladesh (n = 4617) | Pakistan (n = 2673) | Nepal (n = 1919) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | Prevalence (95% CI) | Number | Prevalence (95% CI) | Number | Prevalence (95% CI) | |
| Maternal age (years) | ||||||
| 15–19 | 288 | 11.8 (10.0, 13.1) | 141 | 21.8 (17.2, 27.3) | 89 | 9.5 (7.6, 11.8) |
| 20–24 | 130 | 10.7 (8.8, 12.9) | 165 | 19.8 (15.6, 24.8) | 88 | 13.5 (10.6, 17.2) |
| 25–29 | 81 | 11.6 (9.2, 14.6) | 142 | 17.8 (14.1, 22.3) | 45 | 12.4 (9.0, 17.0) |
| 30–34 | 39 | 14.1 (10.0, 19.5) | 130 | 130 (15.2, 24.9) | 41 | 23.2 (15.7, 32.8) |
| Χ2 = 2.95, p = 0.399 | χ2 = 0.18, p = 0.980 | χ2 = 18.86, p = < 0.001 | ||||
| Parents’ educational statusa | ||||||
| Parents with no formal education | 31 | 21.6 (15.3, 29.6) | 209 | 32.0 (26.4, 38.2) | 44 | 20.6 (15.1, 27.4) |
| Only mother with formal education | 90 | 18.4 (14.8, 22.6) | 16 | 13.3 (6.6, 24.8) | 8 | 9.4 (4.4, 18.9) |
| Only father with formal education | 24 | 18.1 (11.7, 26.7) | 192 | 22.2 (18.1, 26.8) | 71 | 16.3 (12.5, 21.0) |
| Both parents with formal education | 393 | 9.9 (8.9, 11.0) | 161 | 13.4 (10.5, 16.8) | 140 | 10.2 (8.4, 12.3) |
| χ2 = 43.67, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 123.34, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 25.65, p = < 0.001 | ||||
| Mother’s working status | ||||||
| Currently not working | 321 | 10.3 (9.0, 11.7) | 509 | 18.8 (16.2, 21.8) | 102 | 10.7 (8.6, 13.2) |
| Currently working | 217 | 13.3 (11.6, 15.3) | 69 | 26.1 (19.3, 34.3) | 161 | 14.5 (12.0, 17.3) |
| χ2 = 2.19, p = 0.139 | χ2 = 0.38, p = 0.532 | χ2 = 5.87, p = 0. 0.015 | ||||
| Underweight mother | ||||||
| No | 419 | 10.7 (9.6, 12.0) | 524 | 19.4 (16.7, 22.3) | 200 | 10.9 (9.4, 12.7) |
| Yes | 119 | 15.2 (12.6, 18.3) | 54 | 23.6 ([16.5, 32.7) | 63 | 20.2 (15.4, 26.1) |
| χ2 = 16.44, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 1.50, p = 0.220 | χ2 = 10.85, p = 0.001 | ||||
| Mother received antenatal care | ||||||
| No | 66 | 18.3 (14.0, 23.6) | 161 | 34.4 (28.2, 41.1) | 26 | 25.6 (15.2, 39.9) |
| Yes | 472 | 10.8 (9.8, 12.0) | 417 | 17.8 (15.2, 20.8) | 237 | 11.9 (10.3, 13.6) |
| χ2 = 14.81, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 89.25, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 9.73, p = 0.002 | ||||
| Mother received postnatal care | ||||||
| No | 133 | 8.7 (7.1, 10.5) | 444 | 19.5 (16.8, 22.5) | 175 | 12.4 (10.4, 14.7) |
| Yes | 405 | 12.9 (11.6, 14.4) | 134 | 20.5 (16.3, 25.4) | 88 | 13.0 (10.2, 16.4) |
| χ2 = 20.10, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 4.51, p = 0.034 | χ2 = 0.63, p = 0.426 | ||||
| Mother attitude towards wife-beating | ||||||
| Not justified | 422 | 10.9 (9.7, 12.1) | 230 | 16.9 (13.9, 20.5) | 182 | 12.2 (10.4, 14.2) |
| Justified | 116 | 14.0 (11.5, 16.8) | 348 | 23.6 (19.9, 27.6) | 81 | 13.7 (10.8, 17.3) |
| χ2 = 6.03, p = 0.014 | χ2 = 40.84, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 0.68, p = 0.409 | ||||
| Mother’s decision-making autonomyb | ||||||
| Not practiced | 88 | 11.4 (9.2, 14.1) | 309 | 23.1 (19.4, 27.3) | 92 | 13.2 (10.2, 16.8) |
| Practiced | 450 | 11.4 (10.2, 12.7) | 269 | 17.2 (14.4, 20.6) | 171 | 12.3 (10.4, 14.6) |
| χ2 = 0.50, p = 0. 476 | χ2 = 17.87, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 0.08, p = 0.766 | ||||
| Source of drinking water | ||||||
| Improved | 468 | 11.8 (10.6, 13.0) | 478 | 18.8 (16.3, 21.6) | 225 | 12.6 (11.0, 14.4) |
| Unimproved | 70 | 9.4 (7.3, 12.2) | 100 | 26.5 (18.3, 36.8) | 38 | 12.7 (8.6, 18.2) |
| χ2 = 1.67, p = 0.195 | χ2 = 5.65, p = 0.017 | χ2 = 1.23, p = 0.266 | ||||
| Fuel used in cooking | ||||||
| Gas and liquid | 112 | 8.2 (6.7, 10.1) | 176 | 14.9 (12.2, 18.2) | 47 | 8.9 (6.3, 12.4) |
| Solid fuel | 426 | 12.9 (11.5, 14.3) | 402 | 24.5 (20.6, 29.0) | 216 | 14.3 (12.4, 16.4) |
| χ2 = 25.23, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 64.01, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 17.20, p = < 0.001 | ||||
| Type of toilet facility | ||||||
| Improved | 259 | 10.2 (8.9, 11.6) | 405 | 17.1 (14.6, 19.9) | 192 | 11.5 (9.8, 13.4) |
| Unimproved | 279 | 13.0 (11.4, 14.8) | 173 | 28.4 (23.2, 34.3) | 71 | 15.5 (12.0, 19.9) |
| χ2 = 14.38, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 33.40, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 2.40, p = 0.121 | ||||
| Mass media exposure | ||||||
| No | 239 | 14.4 (12.4, 16.7) | 292 | 25.9 (21.3, 31.0) | 84 | 20.4 (16.1, 25.6) |
| Yes | 299 | 299 (8.7, 11.1) | 285 | 16.4 (13.8, 19.3) | 179 | 10.5 (8.9, 12.3) |
| χ2 = 18.26, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 43.88, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 23.25, p = < 0.001 | ||||
| Wealth indexc | ||||||
| Poorest | 176 | 17.2 (14.7, 20.0) | 216 | 37.0 (29.9, 44.8) | 114 | 22.2 (18.1, 26.9) |
| Poorer | 132 | 13.4 (11.0, 16.3) | 173 | 24.4 (19.3, 30.4) | 47 | 10.8 (7.8, 14.6) |
| Middle | 87 | 9.7 (7.7, 12.3) | 75 | 12.3 (8.8, 17.0) | 47 | 12.5 (9.0, 17.1) |
| Richer | 83 | 9.5 (7.5, 12.0) | 63 | 12.7 (8.8, 17.8) | 39 | 9.4 (6.4, 13.6) |
| Richest | 60 | 6.6 (5.0, 8.6) | 51 | 12.5 (8.7, 17.4) | 16 | 16 |
| χ2 = 67.22, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 179.73, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 64.90, p = < 0.001 | ||||
| Place of residence | ||||||
| Urban | 163 | 10.4 (8.6, 12.6) | 209 | 15.7 (12.5, 19.6) | 140 | 12.1 (10.0, 14.7) |
| Rural | 375 | 11.8 (10.5, 13.2) | 369 | 21.9 (18.3, 25.9) | 123 | 13.2 (11.0, 15.7) |
| χ2 = 2.95, p = 0.086 | χ2 = 28.98, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 2.36, p = 0.124 | ||||
| Age of children (in months) | ||||||
| 0–11 | 146 | 7.9 (6.6, 9.6) | 119 | 15.3 (11.6, 19.8) | 50 | 9.7 (7.2, 13.0) |
| 12–23 | 200 | 12.3 (10.5, 14.3) | 133 | 15.1 (11.4, 19.8) | 72 | 13.7 (10.4, 17.9) |
| 24–35 | 192 | 14.7 (12.6, 17.1) | 157 | 28.9 (23.4, 35.0) | 62 | 14.0 (10.9, 17.7) |
| 36–47 | 101 | 24.9 (19.0, 32.0) | 40 | 11.9 (8.6, 16.3) | ||
| 48–59 | 68 | 22.8 (15.9, 31.6) | 39 | 14.7 (9.4, 22.4) | ||
| χ2 = 25.54, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 58.10, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 7.52, p = 0.111 | ||||
| Sex of child | ||||||
| Male | 303 | 12.2 (10.8, 13.7) | 310 | 21.3 (17.8, 25.2) | 154 | 13.6 (11.4, 16.3) |
| Female | 235 | 10.6 (9.1, 12.3) | 268 | 18.2 (15.3, 21.5) | 109 | 11.4 (9.3, 14.0) |
| χ2 = 1.76, p = 0.152 | χ2 = 1.85, p = 0.173 | χ2 = 2.44, p = 0.118 | ||||
| Birth order | ||||||
| First | 190 | 10.8 (9.2, 12.7) | 105 | 19.2 (14.6, 24.8) | 67 | 8.6 (6.7, 11.0) |
| Second | 163 | 10.3 (8.6, 12.2) | 110 | 16.4 (12.3, 21.6) | 71 | 11.0 (8.4, 14.4) |
| Third | 96 | 11.7 (9.5, 14.2) | 93 | 20.5 (15.4, 26.8]) | 44 | 13.7 (9.2, 20.0) |
| Fourth and above | 89 | 16.1 (12.4, 20.8) | 270 | 21.5 (18.0, 25.5) | 81 | 23.1 (18.1, 29.1) |
| χ2 = 82.57, p = 0.004 | χ2 10.03, p = 0.018 | χ2 = 48.01, p = < 0.001 | ||||
| Low birth weightd | ||||||
| No | 115 | 6.4 (5.2, 7.8) | 40 | 11.0 (7.3, 16.3) | 107 | 9.3 (7.5, 11.6) |
| Yes | 57 | 18.1 (13.8, 23.5) | 25 | 27.3 (16.4, 41.7) | 35 | 16.7 (11.6, 23.4) |
| Not weighted | 366 | 14.2 (12.6, 15.9) | 513 | 21.0 (18.1, 24.1) | 121 | 16.9 (14.1, 20.2) |
| χ2 = 82.57, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 46.45, p = < 0.001 | χ2 = 32.36, p < 0.001 | ||||
| Child morbiditye | ||||||
| No | 263 | 11.4 (9.9, 13.1) | 221 | 19.8 (15.8, 24.5) | 180 | 13.2 (11.2, 15.5) |
| Yes | 275 | 11.4 (10.0, 13.0) | 357 | 19.8 (16.6, 23.3) | 83 | 11.5 (9.2, 14.3) |
| χ2 = 0.03, p = 0.859 | χ2 = 1.37, p = 0.241 | χ2 = 2.97, p = 0.093 | ||||
| Total | 538 | 11.4 (10.3, 12.6) | 578 | 19.8 (17.2, 22.6) | 263 | 12.6 (11.1, 14.4) |
CI refers confidence interval.
aAt least five years of schooling (primary level) refers to educated. No (0 years ) schooling year refers to uneducated.
bdefined as women’s decision making power relative to their male partners.
cintegrating household asset ownership and access to drinking water and sanitation.
dchildren < 2.5 kg are small.
echild had at least one morbid condition out of diarrhea, fever and cough in the two weeks preceding the survey.