Table 1.
Characteristics of the included studies on the association between consumption of ultra-processed food and risk of metabolic syndrome.
| References | Study design | Country | Sample size | Follow-up (years) | Mean age/age range | Exposure assessment | Outcome | Effect sizes OR/RR (95%CI) | Study quality | Adjustment |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Magalhães et al. (3) | Cohort | Brazil | 896 | 12–16 y | 37–39 y | FFQ | MetS | 1.00 (0.99–1.01) | 8 | Sex, skin color, age, education, marital status, family income, alcohol consumption, smoking, level of physical activity and total caloric intake |
| Pan et al. (23) | Cohort | China | 5,147 | 29 | ≥18 y | 24-h dietary recall | MetS | 1.17 (1.01–1.35) | 9 | Gender, age, education level, place of residence, regions, income level, smoking history, drinking status, metabolic equivalents, urbanicity, BMI, total energy intake, protein intake, fat intake, carbohydrate intake, and sodium intake |
| Barbosa et al. (24) | Cross-sectional | Brazil | 895 | - | 19–55 y | 24-h dietary recall | MetS | 1.09 (0.89–1.32) | 7 | Age, race/skincolor, marital status, schooling, family participation in a government program, family income, employment status, food insecurity, smoking and health problems in the last 15 days, excess weight and neck circumference |
| Canhada et al. (25) | Cohort | Brazil | 8,065 | 8 y | 35–74 y | FFQ | MetS | 1.19 (1.07–1.32) | 9 | Age, sex, center, race or color, income, school achievement, smoking, physical activity, alcohol, energy intake, and BMI |
| Tavares et al. (26) | Cross-sectional | Brazil | 210 | - | 12–19 y | FFQ | MetS | 2.49 (1.24–3.57) | 6 | Smoking, family hypertriacylglycerolaemia and energy intake |
| Martínez Steele et al. (27) | Cross-sectional | USA | 6,385 | - | ≥20 y | 24-h dietary recall | MetS | 1.20 (1.07–1.35) | 7 | Sex, age group, race/ethnicity, ratio of family income to poverty and educational attainment, smoking status, physical activity, BMI (continuous). |
| Lavigne-Robichaud et al. (28) | Cross-sectional | Canada | 811 | - | ≥18 y | 24-h dietary recall | MetS | 1.90 (1.14–3.17) | 7 | Age (continuous), sex, area of residence (coastal/inland), current smoker (yes/no), alcohol drinker (yes/no, except for the aHEI- 2010 model) and total dietary energy intake (kcal/d, continuous) |
| Ivancovsky-Wajcman et al. (29) | Cross-sectional | Israel | 789 | - | 40–70 y | FFQ | MetS | 1.88 (1.31–2.71) | 7 | Age, gender, BMI, saturate fatty acids and protein intake (% of total kcal), physical activity (hours/week), coffee (cups/day) and fibers (g/day) |
| Nasreddine et al. (30) | Cross-sectional | Lebanon | 302 | - | ≥18 y | FFQ | MetS | 1.11 (0.26–4.65) | 6 | Age, gender, marital status, area of residence, level of education, income, smoking status, physical activity, total energy intake and BMI. |
USA, United States; CVD, cardiovascular disease; BMI, Body mass index; DGAI, Dietary Guidelines Adherence Score; WC, Waist circumference.