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. 2023 May 23;24(11):9154. doi: 10.3390/ijms24119154

Table 1.

Radionuclides for the therapy and diagnosis of various diseases, and their clinical applications.

Positron-Emitting Radionuclides
Nuclide Decay Energy, keV (Intensity) Production Drugs Target/Application Ref.
Copper-62 (62Cu) T1/2 = 9.76 min
β+ = 97.8%
EC = 2.2%		 β+ mean energy 1319:
2937 (max, 97.6%), 1321 (av);
γ:
511 (195.6%);		 62Zn/62Cu generator
Cyclotron
61Ni(p,γ)62Cu		 [62Cu]ATSM
[62Cu]PTSM		 Tumor hypoxia [8]
Carbon-11 (11C) T1/2 = 20.4 min
β+ = 99.8%		 β+ mean energy 385.7:
960 (max, 99.8%), 385.7 (av);
γ:
511 (195.5%);		 Cyclotron
14N(p,α)11C		 [11C]Flumazenil GABA, epilepsy imaging [9]
[11C]Raclopride D2 dopamine receptors, Parkinson Disease imaging [10]
[11C]Methionine Neuroncology, tumor imaging [11]
[11C]Choline Prostate cancer [12]
[11C]Pittsburgh Compound B Alzheimer disease [13]
Copper-60 (60Cu) T1/2 = 23.7 min
β+ = 93%
EC = 7%		 β+ mean energy 970:
1912 (max, 11.6%), 839.6 (av);
1982 (max, 49.0%), 872.0 (av);
2947 (max, 15.0%), 1104 (av);
γ:
511 (185.0%), 826.4 (21.7%),
1332.5 (88.0%), 1791.6 (45.4%);		 Cyclotron
60Ni(p,n)60Cu		 [60Cu]ATSM Tumor hypoxia [14]
Fluorine-18 (18F) T1/2 = 109.8 min
β+ = 96.7%
EC = 3.3%		 β+ mean energy 249.8:
633.5 (max, 96.7%), 249.8 (av);
γ:
511 (193.5%);		 Cyclotron
18O(p,n) 18F		 [18F] FDG
(18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose)		 Tumors
Neurological disorders
Inflammation		 [15]
[18F]FLT (18F-3′-fluoro-3′-deoxythymidine Thymidine kinase-1 (TK-1) imaging biomarker of cellular proliferation
Cancer		 [16]
Gallium-68 (68Ga) T1/2 = 67.7 min
β+ = 88.9%
EC = 11.1%		 β+ mean energy 829.5:
1899 (max, 87.7%), 836.0 (av);
γ:
511 (177.8%), 1077 (3.22%)		 68Zn(p,n) 68Ga
68Ge/68Ga generator		 [68Ga]PSMA-11; [68Ga]DOTA-TATE; [68Ga]DOTA-TOC; [68Ga]DOTA-NOC; [68Ga]FAPI-04 Prostate cancer imaging
SSTR(+) neuroendocrine tumors imaging
Fibroblast-activation-protein—positive tumor imaging		 [17,18,19,20]
Copper-61 (61Cu) T1/2 = 3.34 h
β+ = 61%
EC = 39%		 β+ mean energy 500:
932.8 (max, 5.8%), 399.0 (av);
1216 (max, 51.0%), 524.0 (av);
γ:
511 (123%), 283.0 (12.7%),
656.0 (10.4%), 1185.2 (3.6%);		 Cyclotron
61Ni(p,n)61Cu
60Ni(d,n)61Cu		 [61Cu]ATSM
[61Cu]APTS		 Tumor hypoxia [21]
Scandium-43 T1/2 = 3.89 h
β+ = 88%
EC = 23%		 β+ mean energy 476:
825.8 (max, 17.2%), 344.5 (av);
1199 (max, 70.9%), 508.1 (av);
γ:
511 (176.2%), 372.9 (22.5%);		 43Ca(p,n)43Sc
44Ca(p,2n)43Sc
42Ca(d,n)43Sc		 - - [22]
Scandium-44 T1/2 = 4.04 h
β+ = 94.2%
EC = 5.8%		 β+ mean energy 632:
1473 (max, 94.3%), 632 (av);
γ:
511 (188.5%), 1157 (99.9%);		 Cyclotron
44Ca(d,2n)44Sc
Generator
44Ti/44Sc
natCa(p,n)44Sc		 - - [23,24]
Copper-64 (64Cu) T1/2 = 12.7 h
β+ = 17.5%
EC = 43.5%
β− = 39.0%		 β+ mean energy 278:
652.6 (max, 17.5%), 278.0 (av);
β− mean energy 190.7:
579.6 (max, 38.5%), 190.7 (av);
γ:
511 (35.0%), 1346 (0.47%);		 Cyclotron
64Ni(p,n)64Cu
64Ni(d,2n)64Cu
Reactor
64Zn(n,p)64Cu
63Cu(n,γ)64Cu 		Copper (64Cu) oxodotreotide Somatostatin receptor positive neuroendocrine tumors [25]
Zirconium-89 (89Zr) T1/2 = 3.27 d
EC = 77%
β+ = 23%		 β+ mean energy 396:
902 (max, 22.7%), 395.5 (av);
γ:
511 (45.5%), 909.2 (99.0%);		 Cyclotron
89Y(p,n) 89Zr
89Y(d,2n)89Zr		 89Zr-labeled a mAbs Targeting depends on mAbs type [26,27,28,29,30]
Iodine-124 (124I) T1/2 = 4.2 d
β+ = 23%
EC = 77% 		β+ mean energy 820:
1535 (max, 11.7%), 687.0 (av);
2138 (max, 10.7%), 974.7 (av);
γ:
511 (45%), 602.7 (62.9%),
722.8 (10.4%), 1691 (11.2%);		 Cyclotron
124Te(d,2n)124I
124Te(p,n)124I		 Thyroid cancer
Radiolabeling mAbs		 Differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) [31]
Gamma-emitting radioisotopes
Technetium-99m (99mTc) T1/2 = 6.0 h
IT = 100%		 γ:
140.5 (89%)		 99Mo/99mTc generators Tc-99m medronate Bone imaging agent [32]
Tc-99m arcitumomab Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)
Colorectal tumors imaging		 [33]
Hepatocytes, hepatobiliary imaging [34]
Iodine-123 (123I) T1/2 = 13.2 h
EC = 100%		 γ:
159.0 (83.6%), 529.0 (1.27%);		 Cyclotron
124Xe(p,pn) 123Xe 123I
Accelerator
123Te(p,n)123I		 Sodium iodide-123 Thyroid cancer imaging [35]
Ioflupane (123I) Dopamine transporter binding,
diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease		 [36]
Lofetamine (123I) Non-specific receptor binding.
Cerebral blood perfusion imaging		 [37]
Lomazenil (123I) Benzodiazepine antagonist
GABA receptors imaging		 [38]
Lobenguane (123I) Noradrenaline transporters
Pheochromocytomas
Neuroblastomas		 [39]
Thallium-201 (201Tl) T1/2 = 3.04 d
EC = 100%		 γ:
68.9 (26.6%), 70.8 (44.7%),
80.2 (10.3%), 167.4 (10.0%);		 Cyclotron Thallous chloride Myocardial imaging [39]
Gallium-67 (67Ga) T1/2 = 3.26 d
EC = 100%		 γ:
93.3 (38.8%), 184.6 (21.4%),
300.2 (16.6%), 393.5 (4.6%);		 Cyclotron
68Zn(p,2n)67Ga		 Gallium citrate Primary and metastatic tumors [40]
Indium-111 (111In) T1/2 = 2.8 d
EC = 100%		 γ:
171.3 (90.7%), 245.4 (94.1%);		 Cyclotron
112Cd(p,2n) 111In
111Cd(p,n) 111In		 Indium (111In) capromab pendetide Prostate cancer [41]
Antibody labeling Lymphoma [42]
β−-emitting radioisotopes
Samarium-153 (153Sm) T1/2 = 1.9 d
β− = 100%		 β− mean energy 225:
634.6 (max, 30.4%), 199.5 (av);
704.3 (max, 49.2%), 225.2 (av);
264.3 (max, 19.5%), 807.5 (av);
γ:
69.7 (4.7%), 103.2 (29.1%);		 Reactor
152Sm (n, γ) 153Sm		 153Sm-ethylene diamine tetramethylene phosphonate (EDTMP) Bone pain palliation [43]
Copper-67 (67Cu) T1/2 = 2.58 d
β− = 100%		 β− mean energy 141:
377.1 (max, 57%), 121 (av);
468.4 (max, 22.0%), 154 (av);
189 (max, 20.0%), 561.7 (av);
γ:
91.3 (7.0%), 93.3 (16.1%),
184.6 (48.7%);		 Cyclotron
70Zn(p,α)67Cu
67Zn(n,p)67Cu
Accelerator
68Zn(p,2p)67Cu
70Zn(d,αn)67Cu
and
68Zn(γ,p)67Cu		 - Radioimmunotheranostics [44]
Yttrium-90 (90Y) T1/2 = 2.6 d
β− = 100%		 β− mean energy 932.3:
2279 (max, 100%), 932.4 (av);		 90Sr/90Y generator TheraSphere Radioembolization of hepatocellular carcinoma [45]
Scandium-47 (47Sc) T1/2 = 3.35 d
β− = 100%		 β− mean energy 162:
440.9 (max, 68.4%), 142.6 (av);
600.3 (max, 31.6%), 203.9 (av);
γ:
159.4 (68.3);		 46Ca(n,γ)47Ca → 47Sc
47Ti(n,p)47Sc		 - - [46]
Rhenium-186 (186Re) T1/2 = 3.7 d
β− = 92.5%
EC = 7.5%		 β− mean energy 348:
936 (max, 21.48%), 307.4 (av);
1073 (max, 70.9%), 360.5 (av);
γ:
137.15 (9.47%);		 Reactor
185Re(n,γ) 186Re		 Rhenium-186 HEDP Palliative treatment of bone metastases [47]
Re-186-labeled sulfur colloid Therapy of rheumatoid arthritis [48]
Xenon-133 (133Xe) T1/2 = 5.2 d
β− = 100%		 β− mean energy 100.3:
266.8 (max, 1.4%), 75.16 (av);
346.4 (max, 98.5%), 100.6 (av);
γ:
81.9 (36.9%);		 By-product resulting from nuclear reactors Gas Lung perfusion tests [49]
Lutetium-177 (177Lu) T1/2 = 6.7 d
β− = 100%		 β− mean energy 133.6:
175.5 (max, 11.7%), 47.2 (av);
383.9 (max, 8.9%), 111.2 (av);
496.8 (max, 79.4%), 148.8 (av);
γ:
112.9 (6.23%), 208.4 (10.4%);		 176Lu (n, γ)177Lu
176Yb(n,γ)177Yb→177Lu		 [177Lu]Lu-DOTA-TATE SSTR-expressing tumors [50]
Iodine-131 (131I) T1/2 = 8.0 d
β− = 100%		 β− mean energy 181.9:
247.9 (max, 2.08%), 69.4 (av);
333.8 (max, 7.23%), 96.6 (av);
606.3 (max, 89.6%), 191.6 (av);
γ:
284.3 (6.12%), 364.5 (81.5%),
637 (7.16%), 722.9 (1.77%);		 By-product resulting from nuclear reactors
235 U(n,f)131I		 Sodium iodide Treat hyperthyroidism (an overactive thyroid) [51]
Strontium-89 (89Sr) T1/2 = 51 d
β− = 100%		 β− mean energy 587.1:
1501 (max, 100%), 587.1 (av);		 Thermal reactor
88Sr (n,γ) 89Sr
89Y (n,p)89Sr		 Strontium-89 chloride Metastatic bone lesions imaging [52]
α-emitting radioisotopes
Bismuth-213 (213Bi) T1/2 = 45.6 min
α = 2.14%
β− = 97.86%; (to 213Po, then 209 Pb via α decay)		 β− mean energy 436:
982 (max, 30.1%), 320 (av);
1422 (max, 66.8%), 491.8 (av);
γ:
440.5 (25.9%);
α:
5875 (1.96%),
8376 (98%, 213Po);		 Part of the 225Ac decay - - [53]
Lead-212 (212Pb) T1/2 = 10.6 h
β− = 100%; decays to α-emitters
212Bi and 212Po		 β− mean energy 101.3:
153.8 (max, 5.0%), 40.88 (av);
330.5 (max, 81.5%), 93.28 (av);
569.1 (max, 13.7%), 171.4 (av);
γ:
238.6 (43.6%);
α:
6051 (25.1%, 212Bi),
6090 (9.8%, 212Bi),
8785 (64.0%, 212Po);		 224Ra/212Pb generator 212Pb-labelled DOTAMTATE SSR-binding, therapy of SSR-positive tumors [54]
Actinium-225 (225Ac) T1/2 = 9.9 d
α = 100%
decays to 213Bi		 α:
5637 (4.4%), 5724 (3.1%),
5732 (8.0%), 5792 (18.1%),
5830 (50.7%);		 Th-229/Ac-225 generators
226Ra(n,γ)227Ra
226Ra(p,2n)225Ac 		225Ac-PSMA-617 Prostate cancer therapy [55,56]
Actinium-225 Nitrate Antibody labeling [57]
Thorium-227 (227Th) T1/2 = 18.7 d α:
5708 (8.3%), 5757 (20.4%),
5979 (23.5%), 6038 (24.2%);		 Part of the 227Ac decay series - Antibody labeling [58]