Table 4.
Detection techniques and SARS-CoV-2 fragments isolated in paediatric studies, including vaccination status of included children
| Detection techniques | RNA, antigens, or antibodies | Protein | Sample type | Cell type | Vaccination status | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gomes et al (2021)19 | Immunofluorescence | NA | SARS-CoV-2 spike protein | Lung and brain tissue | Pulmonary parenchymal cells, apical region of the ChP epithelium, and ependyma of the lateral ventricle | Not vaccinated |
| Gomes et al (2021)19 | Immunofluorescence | Viral double-stranded RNA | NA | Brain | Lumina of ChP capillaries and medium size blood vessels | .. |
| Gomes et al (2021)19 | RT-qPCR | Nucleocapsid genes N1 and N2 | NA | Lung, brain (ChP, lateral ventricle, basal ganglia, and cerebellum), heart, kidney, liver, stomach, trachea, and larynx | .. | .. |
| Poisson et al (2022)20 | NA | SARS-CoV-2 IgM antibodies | NA | CSF | .. | Not vaccinated |
| Mabena et al (2021)21 | RT-PCR | N1 and N2 targets of the nucleocapsid gene | NA | Blood and lung | .. | Not vaccinated |
| Frejj et al (2020)22 | RT-PCR | SARS CoV-2 RNA | NA | Brain (cerebellum) | .. | Not vaccinated |
| Menger et al (2022)23 | RT-PCR | SARS CoV-2 RNA | NA | Lung | .. | Not vaccinated |
| Bhatnagar et al (2021)24 | RT-PCR | N gene and S gene | NA | Lung and trachea | .. | 3 patients not vaccinated, 1 unknown |
| Ninan et al (2021)25 | RT-PCR | Not found | NA | Blood, CSF, brain, and lung | .. | Not vaccinated |
| Duarte-Neto et al (2021)26 | Immunohistochemistry | NA | SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein and spike protein | Lung, heart, liver, kidney, spleen, brain, fat tissue, bone marrow, and parotid | Bronchiolar cells, type II pneumocytes, pulmonary megakaryocytes, cardiomyocytes, cardiac endothelial cells, hepatocytes and biliary tract epithelium, renal epithelial tubular cells, spleen (mononuclear cells in the red or white pulp), brain endothelial cells, perivascular astrocytes, sweat glands and subcutaneous nerves, microglia, bone marrow, mononuclear cells, parotid ductal, and acinar cells | Not vaccinated |
| Duarte-Neto et al (2021)26 | RT-PCR | SARS-CoV-2 RNA, nucleocapsid N gene, and envelope E gene | NA | Lung, heart, intestine, parotid | .. | .. |
| Taweevisit et al (2022)27 | Electron microscopy | Viral particles | NA | Heart, kidney, and small bowel | Cardiomyocytes, proximal tubular epithelial cells, and enterocytes | Not vaccinated |
| Dolhnikoff (2020)28 | Electron microscopy | Viral particles | NA | Heart | Cardiomyocytes, endocardial endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and neutrophils | Not vaccinated |
| Dolhnikoff (2020)28 | RT-PCR | SARS-CoV-2 RNA, envelope gene | NA | Heart, kidney, and intestine | .. | .. |
| Mayordomo-Colunga et al (2022)29 | Immunofluorescence | NA | SARS-CoV-2 spike protein | Intestine | Cecum cells | Not vaccinated |
| Sigal et al (2022)30 | Electrochemiluminescence immunoassay | NA | SARS-CoV-2 N and S Protein | Blood sample | .. | Not vaccinated |
| Arostegui et al (2022)31 | Immunohistochemistry | NA | SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid proteins | Colon (intestinal lamina propria) | .. | Not vaccinated |
| Scottoni et al (2022)32 | Immunofluorescence | Viral double-stranded RNA | Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 SARS-CoV-2 nuclear protein | Mesenteric lymph node and ileum | .. | Not vaccinated |
| Colmenero et al (2020)33 | Immunohistochemistry | NA | SARS-CoV-2 spike protein | Skin | Endothelial cells of the capillary and post-capillary venules of the upper dermis, epithelial cells of the secretory portion of eccrine units | Not vaccinated |
| Miura et al (2022)35 | RT-PCR | SARS-CoV-2 RNA | .. | SARS-CoV-2 genome detection rate: 20% in the tonsils, 16·27% in the adenoids, 10·41% of nasal cytobrushes, and 6·25% of nasal washes | .. | Not reported |
| Miura et al (2022)35 | Immunohistochemistry | NA | SARS-CoV-2 nucleoprotein | Tonsils and adenoids | Epithelium and lymphoid compartment | As above |
| Araùjo et al (2021)34 | RT-PCR | SARS-CoV-2 RNA | NA | Cerebrospinal fluid | .. | Not vaccinated |
| Xu et al (2023)36 | Droplet digital PCR | SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid RNA | NA | Tonsils and adenoids | .. | Not vaccinated |
| Schwartz et al (2022)37 | RT-PCR | SARS-CoV-2 RNA | NA | Lung, brain, kidney, and heart | .. | Not vaccinated |
| Lesieur et al (2022)38 | Immunohistochemistry | NA | SARS-CoV-2 envelope protein | Lung and stomach | Desquamated cells in alveolar spaces, alveolar cells, fibroblasts, granulocytic cells, and desquamated cells | Not vaccinated |
| Lesieur et al (2022)38 | Immunohistochemistry | NA | SARS-CoV-2 spike protein | Stomach, liver, and heart | Cytoplasm of the stromal cells of the submucosae and the granulocytic cells, macrophages of the liver and lymph node, cytoplasm of pericardium, endothelial, and granulocytic cells | As above |
| Lesieur et al (2022)38 | RT-PCR | SARS-CoV-2 RNA | NA | Lung, spleen, liver, and trachea | .. | As above |
| Reagan-Steiner (2022)39 | Immunohistochemistry | NA | SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid and spike protein | Lung and trachea | Alveolar macrophages, type II pneumocytes, and hyaline membranes | Not vaccinated |
| Reagan-Steiner (2022)39 | In situ hybridisation | SARS-CoV-2 RNA | NA | Lung, heart, and liver | Alveolar macrophages and pneumocyte, bronchiolar and submucosal gland epithelium, macrophages in lymphoid follicles in airway submucosa, and endothelial cells in myocardium vessel walls | As above |
| Reagan-Steiner (2022)39 | RT-PCR | SARS-CoV-2 RNA | NA | Lung, airway, heart, and liver | .. | As above |
CFS=cerebrospinal fluid. ChP=choroid plexus. NA=not applicable.