Table 1:
Associations of the bedroom environment with sleep efficiency.
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
|
| ||||
| Estimate in % (95% CI) | Estimate in % (95% CI) | Estimate in % (95% CI) | Estimate in % (95% CI) | |
| PM2.5 [μg/m3] | ||||
| ≤ 0.1 | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) |
| > 0.1 ≤ 4.0 | −1.06 (−2.44; 0.32) | −1.31 (−2.69; 0.08) | −1.38 (−2.77; 0.01) | −1.44 (−2.83; −0.05) |
| > 4.0 ≤ 8.0 | −0.88 (−2.73; 0.97) | −1.61 (−3.47; 0.26) | −1.7 (−3.58; 0.17) | −1.65 (−3.54; 0.23) |
| > 8.0 ≤ 12.0 | −1.44 (−3.61; 0.74) | −2.42 (−4.61; −0.22) | −2.51 (−4.72; −0.3) | −2.51 (−4.74; −0.29) |
| > 12.0 | −3.1 (−5.26; −0.93)* | −3.43 (−5.60; −1.25)** | −3.34 (−5.55; −1.13)* | −3.27 (−5.51; −1.03)* |
| p = 0.0510 | p = 0.0417 | p = 0.0551 | p = 0.0633 | |
| Relative Humidity [%] | ||||
| ≤ 44.7 | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) |
| > 44.7 ≤ 48.5 | −0.40 (−1.77; 0.98) | −0.39 (−1.78; 1.00) | −0.27 (−1.67; 1.12) | −0.31 (−1.71; 1.08) |
| > 48.5 ≤ 52.2 | −0.47 (−2.17; 1.23) | −0.41 (−2.12; 1.30) | −0.28 (−2.01; 1.44) | −0.35 (−2.08; 1.39) |
| > 52.2 ≤ 57.1 | −0.57 (−2.42; 1.27) | −0.39 (−2.26; 1.48) | −0.25 (−2.13; 1.64) | −0.26 (−2.16; 1.63) |
| > 57.1 | −2.27 (−4.46; −0.09) | −1.31 (−3.52; 0.89) | −1.14 (−3.4; 1.12) | −1.17 (−3.45; 1.1) |
| p = 0.2252 | p = 0.7773 | p = 0.8388 | p = 0.8273 | |
| Temperature [°F] | ||||
| ≤ 69.7 | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) |
| > 69.7 ≤ 72.2 | −1.15 (−2.61; 0.31) | −1.16 (−2.63; 0.31) | −1.06 (−2.54; 0.41) | −0.98 (−2.46; 0.5) |
| > 72.2 ≤ 74.4 | −1.02 (−2.79; 0.74) | −0.90 (−2.68; 0.88) | −0.66 (−2.46; 1.13) | −0.5 (−2.32; 1.31) |
| > 74.4 ≤ 76.6 | −2.33 (−4.36; −0.31)* | −2.64 (−4.68; −0.61)* | −2.3 (−4.36; −0.24) | −2.08 (−4.16; 0) |
| > 76.6 | −3.98 (−6.14; −1.82)** | −4.02 (−6.20; −1.84)** | −3.61 (−5.83; −1.4)** | −3.4 (−5.64; −1.16)* |
| p = 0.0046 | p = 0.0035 | p = 0.0110 | p = 0.0182 | |
| CO2 [ppm] | ||||
| ≤ 777.3 | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) |
| > 777.3 ≤ 984.0 | −1.63 (−3.11; −0.14)* | −1.54 (−3.02; −0.05)* | −1.71 (−3.21; −0.21)* | −1.82 (−3.33; −0.32)* |
| > 984.0 ≤ 1184.3 | −2.04 (−3.73; −0.35)* | −2.04 (−3.74; −0.34)* | −2.25 (−3.97; −0.53)* | −2.39 (−4.13; −0.65)* |
| > 1184.3 ≤ 1514.2 | −2.27 (−4.10; −0.44)* | −2.28 (−4.12; −0.44)* | −2.52 (−4.39; −0.64)* | −2.65 (−4.54; −0.75)** |
| > 1514.2 | −3.99 (−6.07; −1.91)*** | −3.72 (−5.82; −1.62)** | −3.89 (−6.04; −1.75)** | −4.04 (−6.21; −1.87)** |
| p = 0.0061 | p = 0.0159 | p = 0.0116 | p = 0.0083 | |
| Barometric Pressure [hPa] | ||||
| ≤ 997.9 | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) |
| > 997.9 ≤ 999.3 | 0.85 (−0.39; 2.10) | 0.60 (−0.66; 1.86) | 0.61 (−0.66; 1.87) | 0.63 (−0.63; 1.9) |
| > 999.3 ≤ 1000.4 | 1.09 (−0.20; 2.37) | 0.97 (−0.33; 2.27) | 0.98 (−0.32; 2.28) | 1.09 (−0.22; 2.4) |
| > 1000.4 ≤ 1002.1 | 0.99 (−0.32; 2.29) | 0.88 (−0.44; 2.20) | 0.92 (−0.4; 2.24) | 1.11 (−0.23; 2.44) |
| > 1002.1 | −0.23 (−1.56; 1.11) | −0.29 (−1.63; 1.06) | −0.24 (−1.59; 1.11) | −0.18 (−1.55; 1.2) |
| p = 0.1834 | p = 0.2907 | p = 0.3018 | p = 0.2165 | |
| Sound Pressure Level [dBA] | ||||
| ≤ 41.7 | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) |
| > 41.7 ≤ 46.5 | −0.26 (−1.65; 1.12) | −0.53 (−1.92; 0.86) | −0.54 (−1.93; 0.86) | −0.56 (−1.96; 0.84) |
| > 46.5 ≤ 51.8 | −2.69 (−4.35; −1.03)** | −2.97 (−4.63; −1.32)*** | −3.05 (−4.72; −1.38)*** | −3.13 (−4.81; −1.44)*** |
| > 51.8 ≤ 56.0 | −4.88 (−6.76; −3.00)**** | −4.92 (−6.80; −3.04)**** | −5.12 (−7.02; −3.21)**** | −5.22 (−7.14; −3.29)**** |
| > 56.0 | −4.41 (−6.29; −2.53)**** | −4.65 (−6.53; −2.78)**** | −4.55 (−6.45; −2.65)**** | −4.68 (−6.61; −2.74)**** |
| p < 0.0001 | p < 0.0001 | p < 0.0001 | p < 0.0001 | |
Models were adjusted for the following variables: Model 1 was run for each environmental variable separately and only adjusted for elapsed sleep time (including a quadratic term). Model 2 additionally adjusted for all other environmental variables. Model 3 additionally adjusted for age, sex, race, BMI, household income, educational attainment, and the number of household members. Model 4 additionally adjusted for daytime exercise, naps, stress levels, alcohol and caffeine intake; whether the bed was shared; whether it was a weekday or weekend night, window position (closed/open) and whether air conditioning (central or window) or a fan were used, and high risk for Obstructive Sleep Apnea based on the BERLIN questionnaire (all variables added to Model 4 were self-reported). Ref.: reference category; PM2.5: fine particulate matter; p-values reflect type-III tests of fixed effects; asterisks reflect statistical significance of post-hoc tests contrasting quintiles 2–5 to Ref. (after false-discovery rate29 adjustment; *adjusted p<0.05; **adjusted p<0.01; ***adjusted p<0.001; ****adjusted p<0.0001).