Table 1.
Model | Dosage | Mechanisms | Effects | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
NAFLD | ||||
HepG2 cells | 10 µM (for 24 h) |
↓ TNFα ↑ Antioxidant defenses |
Improved insulin-mediated glucose uptake Reduced inflammation |
Vidyashankar et al. [158] |
C57BLKS db/db mice | 100 mg/kg/day (for 8 weeks) |
↑ Antioxidant defenses ↑ FXR1/TGR5 signaling |
Improved dyslipidemia Relieved liver swelling and liver enzymes Reduced lipid accumulation and hyperglycemia |
Yang et al. [159] |
HepG2 cells | 10 and 20 µM (for 24 h) |
|||
Liver I/R injury | ||||
BALB/c mice | 100 and 200 mg/kg/day (for 5 days) |
↓ ALT and AST ↓TNFα and IL-6 ↑ p62 ↓ BECN1 and LC3 ↑ Bcl-2 ↓ Bax, CASP3 and CASP9 ↓ ERK/NF-κB pathway |
Reduced serum liver enzymes Reduced histopathological liver damage Inhibited the release of proinflammatory cytokines Inhibited autophagy and alleviated apoptosis |
Wu et al. [108] |
Primary hepatocytes | 20 µM (for 24 h before I/R) |
|||
Spraque Dawley rats | 50 mg/kg (for 30 min before I/R) |
↓ AST and ALT ↓ MDA |
Restored abnormal liver enzymes Caused liver histological improvement |
Uylaş et al. [160] |
Wistar rats | 50 mg/kg (before I/R) |
↑ GSH, SOD, and CAT ↓ MDA ↑ Bcl-2 ↓ TNFα, NF-κB, and HO-1 |
Reduced oxidative stress Reduced hepatic degeneration Reduced inflammatory cytokines |
Atef et al. [161] |
Hepatocellular carcinoma | ||||
HuH7 cells | 3 to 7 µM (for 1 h) |
↓ AKT signaling ↓ HGF ↓ TGFα |
Suppressed the migration of HCC cells | Yamada et al. [162] |
HepG2, HuH7, PLC/PRF-5 and Hep3B cells | 80 µM (for 24 and 48 h) |
↓ ROS ↓ Cyclin A and CHK1 ↑ HO-1 |
Reduced proliferation of HCC cells | Jeon et al. [163] |
BALB/c nude mice | 60 mg/kg/day | ↓ AKT and mTOR ↑ MAPK |
Inhibited the growth of HCC Stimulated autophagy Induced apoptosis |
Ji et al. [164] |
SMMC7721, HepG2 and LO2 cells | 0 to 120 µM (for 24, 36, and 48 h) |
|||
Old BALB/c mice | 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg/day (for 21 days) |
↓ MMP-2 and MMP-6 ↓ NF-κB ↓ TNFα, IL-6, and IL-17A |
Inhibited HCC proliferation and migration Promoted apoptosis Produced a reduction in the volume and weight of liver tumors |
Wu et al. [165] |
H22 and HepG2 cells | 25, 50, and 100 µM (for 24, 48, and 72 h) |
↑, increase; ↓, decrease; AKT, protein kinase B; ALT, alanine transaminase; AST, aspartate transaminase; Bax, Bcl-2-Like protein 4; Bcl-2, B-cell lymphoma-2; BECN1, beclin-1; CASP3, caspase 3; CAT, catalase; CHK1, checkpoint kinase 1; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; FXR1, farnesoid X receptor 1; GSH, glutathione; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; HGF, hepatocyte growth factor; HO-1, hemeoxygenase-1; IL-6, interleukin-6; I/R, ischemia-reperfusion; LC3, microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B light chain 3; LIRI, liver ischemia-reperfusion injury; MDA, malondialdehyde; MMP, matrix metalloproteinase; NAFLD, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; NF-κB, nuclear factor-κB; p62, sequestosome-1; ROS, reactive oxygen species; SOD, superoxide dismutase; TGA, triacylglycerol; TGFα, transforming growth factor alpha; TGR5, Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5; TNFα, tumor necrosis factor α.